The WHO identifies climate change as the defining public health threat of our time.1 A hallmark of the Anthropocene epoch, climate change reflects the profound and harmful impact of human activity on the planet.2 The resultant global warming, biodiversity loss, food insecurity, heat stress, air pollution, water scarcity, emerging vector-borne diseases, zoonoses, natural disasters, habitat destruction, biodiversity loss, and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) have significantly harmed both human and animal health.2–4 The drivers of climate change and its impacts lie at the complex intersection of animal, human, and environmental health. Recognizing the existential threats posed by these challenges, the United Nations established the Sustainable Development Goals, a global agenda to support peace and prosperity and foster sustainability by 2030.5 Central to this vision is the need for education and capacity building to foster transdisciplinary partnerships that span multiple sectors and disciplines.
Recognizing the importance of climate change to patient health and the role the healthcare sector plays in the process, the Association of American Medical Colleges, in alignment with the American Medical Association, has integrated climate education and sustainability efforts into their strategic plan.6,7 The American Association of Veterinary Medical Colleges8 and the World Veterinary Association9 recently established position statements on the need to include climate-related health education within veterinary medical curricula. The AVMA also supports the use of the One Health framework to help veterinarians learn to minimize the impacts of the climate crisis and to educate their clients on its effects on public health.10
Importantly, the current medical and veterinary students are digitally savvy, globally aware, socially and environmentally conscious, and keenly aware of the negative impacts of the climate crisis on human health and its threats to the sustainability of the planet.11 Driven by concerns about competency gaps in their curriculum related to managing the impacts of the climate crisis on the health of their future patients, medical students developed the Planetary Health Report Card initiative in 2019.12 Similarly, a study by Schiavone et al13 illustrated that veterinary students felt their knowledge about and training in sustainable practices was limited. A systematic review of the veterinary literature noted few publications about environmental sustainability in veterinary practice. Interestingly, clients prefer and are willing to pay for animal healthcare delivered in environmentally sustainable veterinary practices.14,15
Strategies are needed to meet the needs of healthcare students and their patients related to climate change and to address the aligned goals identified by global and academic organizations. Educators can empower medical and veterinary students to obtain the skills to build the collaborative, transdisciplinary partnerships required to treat future patients and alleviate the impacts of the climate crisis through interprofessional education (IPE).
Interprofessional education is defined as an educational method in which students from 2 or more fields learn from and with one another. Without this authentic engagement, One Health remains abstract to all health professions, limiting its potential to drive meaningful change. Interprofessional education is a pedagogical platform that allows diverse groups of learners to understand the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health and develop the skills, knowledge, and confidence to work across disciplines. Interprofessional education can maximize the impact of One Health strategies in addressing complex global challenges, like climate change.
While IPE is an accreditation requirement for other health professions, it is not currently an accreditation requirement for veterinary medicine. The Liaison Committee for Medical Education Standard 7 requires that medical school curricula provide education pertaining to interprofessional care to prepare students to work with other professions where required to coordinate care to optimize their patient outcomes.16 The Interprofessional Education Collaborative (IPEC) defines 4 core competencies to enhance health outcomes: (1) values and ethics focus on shared values, ethical conduct, and mutual respect; (2) roles and responsibilities acknowledge the need for the expertise of each team member to be recognized and leveraged; (3) communication emphasizes the development of skills building respectful and compassionate interactions to enhance team function; and (4) the science of teams and teamwork encourages learners to adapt their role as necessary within a variety of team settings.17 In 2023, IPEC added One Health as a subcompetency to the “values and ethics” core competency, recognizing the value of transdisciplinary expertise to promote interprofessional collaboration. Even with this inclusion and widespread acknowledgment of the interconnected health impacts of climate change, the response from human health–related professions to draw on the One Health approach remains fragmented.
Although more involved in One Health, veterinary medicine has been slow to add planetary health education into the curricula despite growing evidence supporting climate change–related education and information acquisition among students and pet owners.14 Several narratives aligned with One Health, including Planetary Health, advocate for developing climate change education in curricula that also require IPE. Planetary health focuses on the relationship between human health and that of the planet and is closely related to One Health as human's existence on the planet necessitates the preservation of animal and ecosystem integrity.18–20 The One Health approach, which emphasizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, offers a promising framework for veterinary medicine as it is routinely referenced within the profession. However, effective implementation of One Health requires coordinated collaboration and communication within a structured framework for interdisciplinary capacity building, guided by a Theory of Change.18 The Theory of Change provides a roadmap of the change pathways, such as collaborative policy formation and integrated surveillance, that can be used to address the shared challenges faced by organizations across the sectors of animal health, human health, and environmental health.18
The importance of collaboration in addressing climate-related health challenges was highlighted in a 2022 National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine workshop that explored the role of companion animals as sentinels for environmental exposure, particularly in understanding aging and cancer in humans.21 Similarly, the Global Consortium on Climate and Health Education (GCCHE) has developed a range of climate-related health domains relevant for health professionals.22 These efforts provide a basis for the development of an interprofessional, One Health, and Allied Planetary Health curricula.
In addition, authentic learning, an educational term referring to multidisciplinary learning in a real-life, relevant context, is essential for effectively integrating One Health approaches into practice.23 In Naumann et al,24 health professional students participating in IPE training gained a significant understanding of how and why interprofessional work matters, particularly in the competencies around roles and responsibilities. These findings emphasize the importance of authentic learning opportunities that model real cases. Incorporating both IPE and One Health concepts within the veterinary curriculum is imperative to create a learning experience that reflects the complex nature of these real-life challenges and enables students to develop interprofessional skills. If IPE approaches are not actively practiced during training, learners miss the opportunity to develop relationships and experience the collaboration, communication, and problem solving necessary for real-world applications. This can also be critical to articulating the strengths and roles of other professions, particularly when veterinary medicine is not as commonly included in IPE work.
This review describes the need for and development of an IPE curriculum focused on climate change, integrating domains from both human and veterinary medicine. Veterinary educators can leverage the One Health framework to emphasize collaborative learning in this space. This manuscript is also a clarion call to action to use IPE as a delivery platform to prepare all health professionals to address the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change on the health outcomes of their patients.
Rationale for Climate-Related Health Education for Veterinary and Medical Students
Health professions could better prepare future graduates to tackle the effects of the climate crises through IPE.25 Interprofessional education creates a platform on which human and veterinary medical students gain team-based competencies and an understanding of each profession's ethics, values, roles, and responsibilities. Learning with and from one another, students develop the relationships and collaborative skills necessary for implementing an integrated approach to mitigating the health impacts of climate change.26 Educational changes that directly model these approaches are needed to better prepare veterinary graduates to prevent, diagnose, and treat climate-related health threats and to advocate for policies that reduce healthcare-related and other causes of climate change.27
Veterinary students and veterinarians recognize that climate change affects the health of animals.13 However, there is a dearth of evidence-based literature about veterinary students’ knowledge regarding the specific health-related climate crisis impacts or their role in interprofessional teams. Many IPE studies involve health professional students with the exception of veterinary students. A 2024 article by Ccami-Bernal et al28 reported on the knowledge gap about climate change–related impacts on health across 35 countries. This study included 9,205 students across the disciplines of medicine, pharmacy, nursing, public health, medical laboratory technology, environmental health, psychiatry nursing, dentistry, and midwifery as well as physician assistants and health officers; veterinary medicine is strikingly missing from this list.
To understand the health effects of climate change, one must understand a complicated web of factors originating from environmental causes, animal sources, and social, cultural, and economic variables influencing human behaviors. Through IPE, students in human healthcare, veterinary medicine, and other professions could more thoroughly understand the importance of contributions from their respective areas regarding the causes of climate change. Subsequently, they could become effective advocates for policy changes that mitigate the effects of climate change on patient health and outcomes. For example, burning fossil fuels for electricity and heat production and agricultural practices, such as livestock farming and deforestation, are the 2 leading causes of greenhouse gas emissions.29 The healthcare sector accounts for roughly 4% to 5% of greenhouse gas emissions globally.30,31 Anesthetic agent use in human and veterinary medicine contributes significantly toward these emissions.32 Awareness of the variety of contributors to climate change, and the associated impacts on patient health, can help healthcare providers play a role in developing, recommending, and implementing alternative practices.
The emergence of zoonotic viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, Ebola, West Nile virus, and the recent emergence of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) in cattle, are examples of infectious diseases that will continue to pose a threat to planetary health if the causal factors are not tackled at source. Human behaviors, such as changes in land use and land degradation, are leading to closer contact between wildlife reservoirs and civilians, resulting in adverse effects on human and animal health.33 Specific examples include the high mortality of Indian vultures from the consumption of carcasses tainted with diclofenac, lead bullets in carcasses leading to scavenging raptor mortality,34 and the release of toxins from harmful algal blooms.35 Antimicrobial resistance is another significant global problem likely to be exacerbated by climate change and the emergence of infectious diseases.3,4 All healthcare students need to learn, implement, and educate clients on the principles of antimicrobial stewardship.36 Shehu et al37 illustrate the need for closing knowledge gaps across all sectors to tackle the effects of climate change by instituting a transdisciplinary approach to educating future professionals involved in animal, environmental, and human health.
Interprofessional Education Collaborative Competencies Can Be Used to Frame Domains for Climate Change–Related Education Tailored to Veterinary and Medical Curricula
While the One Health High-Level Expert Panel18 advocates the 4 C's (ie, Communication, Collaboration, Coordination, and Capacity building) for operationalizing One Health, IPE is a team-based pedagogical platform well tailored for delivering climate-related education. The GCCHE developed domains and competencies that can be adapted across multiple professional health disciplines.22 The GCCHE domains have been expanded below, embedding the IPEC competencies that foster the value of respect within interdisciplinary teams, recognizing the important yet different roles of team members. The communication domain is one that is advocated for by the GCCHE, One Health High-Level Expert Panel, and IPEC as a core competency required for developing all other domains.
Proposed Integrated GCCHE Domains
The GCCHE domains consist of knowledge and analytic skills, communication and collaboration, policy, public health practice, and clinical practice and are described below in greater detail.22
Knowledge and Analytic Skills
The knowledge and analytic skills domain focuses on building a foundational knowledge base regarding the scientific validation of climate change, the effects of climate on health, and how to approach mitigation and adaptation.22 An introduction to the established issues, such as the intensification of natural disasters (eg, hurricanes and wildfires), the impact of current agricultural practices on the environment (eg, deforestation and large livestock production farms), and AMR, can serve as a shared foundational knowledge base regarding climate change and issues that require an interprofessional approach. Data acquisition, analysis, and interpretation—the backbone of knowledge—tend to be siloed within individual professions. Interprofessional education allows for the incorporation of a One Health approach for the development of interprofessional relationships, sharing of diverse knowledge and experiences, and promotion of systems-level analysis that incorporates multiple sources of data to evaluate problems. Talks focused on climate-related disasters might involve public health professionals analyzing human health impacts, environmental scientists studying ecological recovery, policy experts developing evacuation strategies, and economists assessing the costs of damage and mitigation.
Communication and Collaboration
Communication is defined as a core competency by IPEC, the Association of American Medical Colleges, and the American Association of Veterinary Medical Colleges and the GCCHE.22 We propose a curriculum that goes beyond traditional, siloed communication courses to enable students to effectively communicate with policymakers and others involved in coordinating disaster response impacting animals and humans. Interprofessional education offers an opportunity for cross-sectoral communication skills to be learned and practiced in a variety of contexts, such as public health science literacy, clinical practice, and interprofessional collaborations. Specifically, an IPE climate-focused course would demonstrate the myriad techniques that can be used to foster effective communication so that students across disciplines become climate literate and use shared language to implement common goals.
Policy
While local, state, governmental, and international policies have the power to protect and promote animal, human, and environmental health, drafting and implementing policies requires understanding and subject matter expertise.22 Interprofessional education would provide students with a variety of perspectives on climate-related topics and would enhance their ability to share their disciplinary expertise to guide local, regional, and international climate-related ethical decision-making in policy development and implementation. Collaborating on a policy design and advocacy exercise using authentic scenarios could help create working relationships and a skill base that would directly translate to practice.
Public Health Practice
Veterinarians and physicians can benefit from working with other health professionals in coordinating disease response.22 For example, public health professionals would benefit from working closely with vector-borne disease experts and climate modelers to predict where a disease outbreak may occur. Interprofessional education supports the development of understanding and trusted interprofessional relationships before an outbreak or crisis, which results in more rapid and effective responses when needed. Interprofessional education can help elucidate what professions may offer insights in critical elements of disease cycles, such as parasitology, anthropology, and animal health.
Clinical Practice
In clinical practice, medical and veterinary professionals will manage cases related to or caused by climate change. Climate change exacerbates health conditions, such as heat-related illnesses, respiratory diseases, vector-borne infections, and mental health issues.38 Healthcare systems contribute significantly to environmental pollution and hence climate change,30 making it incumbent on health professionals from medicine, veterinary medicine, dentistry, and public health to promote sustainable healthcare practices. Identifying links to climate-related healthcare practice, such as the consideration of social determinants of health, could encourage a more holistic approach in the examination room.22
Topics for an IPE and One Health Curricula on Climate Change
Selected topics for an IPE and One Health curricula on climate change, framed by the IPEC and GCCHE domains (discussed above in the section on proposed integrated GCCHE domains), include the following: sustainability in healthcare; natural disasters and the human animal bond; environmental change; food systems, food security, and lifestyle medicine; AMR; vector-borne diseases and emerging zoonoses; and policy development grounded in interprofessional expertise. Examples of climate-based lessons across veterinary and medical curricula, including IPE cases, scenarios, and table-top exercises, are discussed below.
Sustainability in Healthcare
Veterinary students report feeling their knowledge about and training in sustainable practices is limited.13 Few publications about veterinary practice environmental sustainability exist despite clients’ stated willingness to pay for animal healthcare delivered in environmentally sustainable practices.14,15 Veterinary practitioners are beginning to align with their medical colleagues in recognizing the need to mitigate the ecological footprint of healthcare and the health impacts of environmental pollution.39 The significant environmental and health impacts of medical practice, the overlap in veterinary and human medical practice, and the increased collective power to influence industry practices strongly supports using a collaborative approach to educating students on sustainable healthcare practices. Students’ awareness of sustainable practices, such as proper recycling of clinical and pharmaceutical waste; using renewable energy sources; sourcing sustainable materials to decrease the environmental impact of drugs, chemicals, and anesthetic gases; and promoting antimicrobial stewardship, is key to enabling them to effectively influence policy development.
Natural Disasters and the Human-Animal Bond
Students need to understand the major health outcomes that can result from climate emergencies. Extreme heat events and precipitation caused by global warming are responsible for natural disasters, such as wildfires, flooding, and intensification of hurricanes. A scenario could be built from the obstacles associated with the required evacuation of people who have livestock or companion animals and the shared health impacts of changes in air quality.40
Environmental Change
The effects of extreme heat and poor air quality on human health, such as hypertension, cardiovascular and respiratory health impacts, and even mortality,41 can lead to similar health outcomes in animals. While numerous peer-reviewed manuscripts describe the adverse effects of air pollution on human health, few publications are available in veterinary literature. A 2024 paper by Deschenes et al42 reports on this gap in the literature and correlates increasing particulate matter levels with a diameter ≤ 2.5 µm (particulate matter 2.5) to more veterinary visits for client-owned cats and dogs as well as decreased performance in horses.43
Food Systems, Food Security, and Lifestyle Medicine
Pharmaceutical waste from the healthcare sector and pesticides used in agricultural systems often enter land and marine water sources, posing a health risk to animals as well as to consumers of products derived from these land and marine sources.44 Interprofessional education enables students across the health professions to understand and hence advocate for legislation that promotes sustainable food production systems that would enable consumers to pursue healthier diets and lifestyles. A reduction in meat-based diets is linked to a reduction in chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, obesity, and hyperlipidemia.45 Case examples of how the rise in chronic diseases is heavily linked to unhealthy diets and a lack of activity are possible discussion topics for IPE courses, and students could brainstorm ways to establish more sustainable animal and plant-based protein production systems while considering local and cultural needs.
Antimicrobial Resistance
The growing global demand for meat is fueling the intensification of livestock farming systems, leading to greater demands for prophylactic antimicrobial use for feed conversion efficiency and disease prevention.45 Unregulated use of antimicrobials leads to antimicrobial residues in soils and water runoff, which negatively impacts the health of animals, humans, and ecosystems.44 The National Institute of Antimicrobial Resistance Research and Education46 is a member organization that drives cross-sector engagement and coordinated action to combat the global threat of AMR across humans, animals, and the environment through research, education, and building a community of practice and advocacy. Groups like the National Institute of Antimicrobial Resistance Research and Education have developed robust educational resources and collaborations that can be incorporated into curriculum and practice.
Vector-Borne Diseases and Emerging Zoonoses
Students need to understand the effects of human activities on environmental health and the resultant wide-ranging impacts on people and their animals, particularly in lower socioeconomic and other marginalized communities. The effects of the climate crisis are intersected with urbanization, resulting in biodiversity loss, the emergence of zoonoses, and the expansion of vector-borne diseases. This ecosystem destruction results in new species interactions and habitats for species that are reservoirs for zoonotic diseases.47,48 Unless specific design elements are included, urbanization also increases local temperatures and decreases access to nature and animal corridors. The impact of these changes on vector prevalence and range and the ways to best mitigate them is an interconnected and complex topic, including biological pest control, pesticide use, and health outcomes.
In Malaysia, deforestation is bringing humans into closer contact with non-human primates infected with zoonotic Plasmodium spp, facilitating sylvatic vector-borne transmission of malaria to civilians.49,50 The loss of bats due to white-nose syndrome outbreaks and the subsequent increased use of chemical pesticides to control pest populations is associated with significant economic and health impacts, including an almost 8% increase in nontraumatic infant mortality.51 A One Health approach is required for students in the human, veterinary, and environmental sectors to understand the many factors that impact human behaviors and lead to destructive environmental activities that influence disease development and transmission.
Policy Development Grounded in Interprofessional Expertise
Anthropogenic factors, such as the expansion of agriculture and the illegal wildlife trade in parts of Asia and elsewhere, facilitate the spillover of zoonotic agents from animals to humans. Overhunting, climate change, and land degradation are leading to biodiversity loss and with it the emergence of many invasive species and zoonoses as humans encounter new reservoirs of disease. Similarly, ocean carbon sinks are experiencing acidification and a loss of marine biodiversity.52 Ocean health is essential to human health and livelihood as it provides oxygen, water, food, pharmaceuticals, climate regulation, and economic development. Veterinarians are uniquely qualified to collaborate with medical and environmental health professionals and social workers to drive policy changes directed at protecting ecosystems and the prevention of zoonoses and biodiversity loss.53,54
Interprofessional efforts to drive policy changes embedded in a One Health approach can engender the use of newer technological tools to conduct integrated surveillance across human, animal, and environmental health sectors. These efforts are necessary to identify potential or actual diseases in animals before they affect humans.55 The multidisciplinary collaboration of experts in computer science, climate-related sciences, public health, social sciences, data science, and the medical professions would mitigate the effects of climate on health while protecting the data security of individuals and designing cost-effective prevention strategies.
Discussion and Conclusion
Interprofessional education is a way for students from multiple professions to learn how to effectively engage with the complex and multifaceted health challenges posed by climate change. Interprofessional education provides the ideal pedagogical platform for delivering One Health competencies to prepare health-profession students to cooperate and collaborate in tackling the effects of the climate crisis on the health of patients and the planet. By embedding IPE within medical and veterinary curricula, future veterinarians and physicians will be able to more effectively adopt a collaborative, coordinated approach to treating their patients and mitigating the effects of the climate crisis on people, animals, and the environment.
Engaging veterinary and medical professionals is crucial to achieve the United Nation's policy goals to protect human, animal, and environmental health. Although individuals can have a positive impact, a joint effort would more effectively address the health impacts of pollution, the spread of vector-borne and zoonotic diseases, food insecurity, natural disasters, biodiversity loss, and mental health issues originating at the nexus of animal health, human health, and environmental health. It is also crucial to prepare graduates of health professions to understand their role as trusted subject matter experts. They need to be prepared to advocate for policies geared at preventing future pandemics and mitigating the impacts of climate change on the health of their patients. Providing shared curricula across related professions is a sustainable practice involving shared resources, knowledge, and experiences. Shared curricula thereby also help identify and address current knowledge gaps and facilitate successful change through community building.
Significantly, this clarion call for better education about the climate crisis originates from within student populations. Faculty and institutions have an opportunity and responsibility to answer their call to action and prepare their students for a future requiring climate literacy and the tools to adopt a team-based approach for tackling the climate crisis. The expansion of IPE content to include climate change topics and the veterinary profession provides a mechanism to address these challenges.
Acknowledgments
None reported.
Disclosures
The authors have nothing to disclose. No AI assisted technologies were used in the composition of this manuscript.
Funding
St. George's University funded the payment of the manuscript.
ORCID
T. L. Webb https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4547-3787
B. Watson https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7999-6810
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