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- Author or Editor: Yi-Jen Chang x
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate effects of loop diameter of a modified Kessler locking-loop (LL) suture on in vitro tensile strength and gapping characteristics of canine flexor tendon repairs.
SAMPLE
48 cadaveric superficial digital flexor tendons from 24 adult medium- to large-breed dogs.
PROCEDURES
Flexor tendons were randomly assigned to 4 groups (n = 12/group) and repaired with 2-0 polypropylene in a LL pattern with loops measuring 1, 2, 3, or 4 mm in diameter. Biomechanical loads, gap formation between tendon ends, and failure modes were evaluated and compared between groups.
RESULTS
Increasing loop diameter from 1 to 4 mm significantly increased yield (P = .048), peak (P < .001), and failure (P < .001) loads. There were no significant differences in yield, peak, and failure loads between 1- and 2-mm loops. Load to 3-mm gap formation was significantly (P < .001) greater for 4-mm loops, compared with 1-, 2-, and 3-mm loops. Failure mode did not differ significantly among experimental groups, with 46 of 48 (96%) of constructs failing because of suture breakage.
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Loop diameter of a LL suture pattern is an important biomechanical variable that influences construct biomechanics of canine tendon suture repairs. Loop diameters > 3 mm are recommended when the size of the tendon allows. Further studies are necessary to determine the in vivo effect of these findings, particularly the effects on tendon blood supply.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To determine the effects of 2-, 4-, 6- and 8-strand suture repairs on the biomechanical properties of canine gastrocnemius tenorrhaphy constructs in an ex vivo model.
SAMPLE
56 cadaveric gastrocnemius musculotendinous units from 28 adult large-breed dogs.
PROCEDURES
Tendons were randomly assigned to 4 repair groups (2-, 4-, 6- or 8-strand suture technique; n = 14/group). Following tenotomy, repairs were performed with the assigned number of strands of 2-0 polypropylene suture in a simple interrupted pattern. Biomechanical testing was performed. Yield, peak, and failure loads, the incidence of 1- and 3-mm gap formation, forces associated with gap formation, and failure modes were compared among groups.
RESULTS
Yield, peak, and failure forces differed significantly among groups, with significantly greater force required as the number of suture strands used for tendon repair increased. The force required to create a 1- or 3-mm gap between tendon ends also differed among groups and increased significantly with number of strands used. All constructs failed by mode of suture pull-through.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Results indicated that increasing the number of suture strands crossing the repair site significantly increases the tensile strength of canine gastrocnemius tendon repair constructs and their resistance to gap formation. Future studies are needed to assess the effects of multistrand suture patterns on tendon glide function, blood supply, healing, and long-term clinical function in dogs to inform clinical decision-making.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the effect of presurgical storage conditions on leakage pressures of enterotomy sites closed with unidirectional barbed suture material in fresh, chilled, and frozen-thawed cadaveric canine jejunal specimens.
SAMPLE
36 grossly normal jejunal segments obtained from 4 dog cadavers.
PROCEDURES
9 jejunal segments were harvested immediately from each euthanized dog and randomly assigned to be tested within 4 hours after collection (fresh segments), stored at 4°C for 24 hours before testing (chilled segments), or stored at −20°C for 7 days and thawed at 21°C for 6 hours before testing (frozen-thawed segments). For leakage pressure testing, a 3-cm-long antimesenteric enterotomy was performed and repaired with 3-0 unidirectional barbed suture material in a simple continuous pattern in each segment. Time to complete the enterotomy, initial leakage pressure, maximum intraluminal pressure, and leakage location were recorded for each segment.
RESULTS
Mean ± SD initial leakage pressure for fresh, chilled, and frozen-thawed segments was 52.8 ± 14.9 mm Hg, 51.8 ± 11.9 mm Hg, and 33.3 ± 7.7 mm Hg, respectively. Frozen-thawed segments had significantly lower mean initial leakage pressure, compared with findings for fresh or chilled segments. Time to complete the enterotomy, maximum intraluminal pressure, and leakage location did not differ among groups.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Leak pressure testing of cadaveric jejunal segments that are fresh or chilled at 4°C for 24 hours is recommended for enterotomy studies involving barbed suture material in dogs. Freezing and thawing of cadaveric jejunal tissues prior to investigative use is not recommended because leak pressure data may be falsely low.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate and compare the anesthetic, analgesic, and cardiorespiratory effects of tiletamine-zolazepam-detomidine-butorphanol (TZDB), tiletamine-zolazepam-xylazine-butorphanol (TZXB), and ketamine-detomidine-butorphanol (KDB) in pigs and to assess anesthetic recovery duration and quality following administration of tolazoline as a reversal agent.
ANIMALS
11 healthy 2.5-month-old castrated male Landrace mixed-breed pigs.
PROCEDURES
In a randomized, blinded crossover study design, pigs received the following anesthetic combinations, IM: TZDB (tiletamine-zolazepam [3 mg/kg {1.36 mg/lb}], detomidine [0.18 mg/kg {0.08 mg/lb}], and butorphanol [0.12 mg/kg {0.05 mg/lb}]); TZXB (tiletamine-zolazepam [4 mg/kg {1.8 mg/lb}], xylazine [4 mg/kg], and butorphanol [0.2 mg/kg {0.09 mg/lb}]); and KDB (ketamine [8 mg/kg {3.63 mg/lb}], detomidine [0.18 mg/kg], and butorphanol [0.3 mg/kg {0.14 mg/lb}]). A 7-day washout period was provided between treatments. At 45 minutes of anesthesia, pigs received tolazoline (2 mg/kg [0.9 mg/lb], IM; n = 6) treatment or control (5) treatment with saline (0.9% NaCl) solution.
RESULTS
All anesthetic combinations induced anesthesia. Endotracheal intubation was completed within 5 minutes after anesthetic administration in all pigs, except in 2 pigs following administration of KDB. Durations (mean ± SD) of endotracheal intubation and lateral recumbency in pigs that did not receive tolazoline were 55.3 ± 4.8 minutes, 83.8 ± 15.8 minutes, and 28.2 ± 4.5 minutes and 112.4 ± 18.7 minutes, 117.2 ± 16.7 minutes, and 79.7 ± 6.0 minutes, respectively, for the TZDB, TZXB, and KDB anesthetic treatments. Tolazoline significantly shortened the duration of anesthetic recovery for all anesthetic treatments without affecting the recovery quality.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
All 3 anesthetic combinations were suitable for providing anesthesia in pigs. Tolazoline administration shortened the duration of anesthetic recovery without affecting the quality of recovery.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the effect of knot location on the biomechanical strength and gapping characteristics of ex vivo canine gastrocnemius tenorrhaphy constructs.
SAMPLE
36 cadaveric gastrocnemius tendons from 18 adult dogs.
PROCEDURES
Tendons were randomly assigned to 3 groups (12 tendons/group) and sharply transected and repaired by means of a core locking-loop suture with the knot at 1 of 3 locations (exposed on the external surface of the tendon, buried just underneath the external surface of the tendon, or buried internally between the apposed tendon ends). All repairs were performed with size-0 polypropylene suture. All constructs underwent a single load-to-failure test. Yield, failure, and peak forces, mode of failure, and forces required for 1- and 3-mm gap formation were compared among the 3 knot-location groups.
RESULTS
Mean yield, failure, and peak forces and mean forces required for 1- and 3-mm gap formation did not differ significantly among the 3 groups. The mode of failure also did not differ significantly among the 3 groups, and the majority (33/36 [92%]) of constructs failed owing to the suture pulling through the tendinous substance.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Final knot location did not significantly affect the biomechanical strength and gapping characteristics of canine gastrocnemius tenorrhaphy constructs. Therefore, all 3 evaluated knot locations may be acceptable for tendon repair in dogs. In vivo studies are necessary to further elucidate the effect of knot location in suture patterns commonly used for tenorrhaphy on tendinous healing and collagenous remodeling at the repair site.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To compare the biomechanical strength and incidence of gap formation among canine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) constructs that underwent core tenorrhaphy only and those in which the core tenorrhaphy was augmented with skin staples or a continuous Silfverskiold cross-stitch (SXS) suture pattern.
SAMPLE
42 cadaveric forelimb SDFTs from 21 musculoskeletally normal dogs.
PROCEDURES
Tendons were randomly assigned to 3 groups (14 SDTFs/group), sharply transected, and repaired with a core locking-loop suture alone (group 1) or augmented with circumferential placement of skin staples (group 2) or a continuous SXS suture pattern (group 3) in the epitenon. All constructs underwent a single load-to-failure test. Yield, peak, and failure loads, incidence of gap formation, and mode of failure were compared among the 3 groups.
RESULTS
Mean yield, peak, and failure loads differed significantly among experimental groups and were greatest for group 3 and lowest for group 1 constructs. The incidence of gap formation differed among the tested groups and was lowest for group 3 and highest for group 1. The most common mode of construct failure was the suture pulling through the tendon for group 1, staple deformation for group 2, and epitendinous suture breakage for group 3.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Results indicated epitendinous placement of skin staples around a core SDFT tenorrhaphy site improved the biomechanical strength and resistance to gap formation for the repair but was inferior to epitendinous placement of SXS sutures. Further research is necessary before skin staples are used for tenorrhaphy augmentation in clinical patients.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the effect of suture caliber on the tensile strength of tenorrhaphies performed with a locking-loop technique in cadaveric canine tendons
SAMPLE
60 superficial digital flexor tendons (SDFTs) from 30 cadaveric adult dogs.
PROCEDURES
Transverse tenotomy was performed, and SDFTs were repaired with a locking-loop technique and polypropylene suture of 5 randomly assigned calibers: size-0, 2-0, 3-0, 4-0, or 5-0 (n = 12 SDFTs/suture caliber). Tendon constructs were tested to failure. Yield, peak, and failure forces and causes of failure were compared between groups.
RESULTS
Mean ± SD failure force for the constructs was significantly greater with large-caliber suture (size-0: 73.5 ± 3.1 N; size 2-0: 54.4 ± 7.1 N; size 3-0: 28.7 ± 4.9 N; size 4-0: 18.7 ± 3.4 N; and size 5-0: 8.8 ± 2.8 N). The likelihood of construct failure by suture pullout through the tendon substance increased with large-caliber suture (size-0: 12/12), whereas the likelihood of construct failure by suture breakage increased with small-caliber suture (2-0: 10/12; 3-0, 4-0, and 5-0: 12/12 each).
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Large-caliber suture had greater tensile strength for tenorrhaphies performed with a locking-loop technique in cadaveric canine tendons. Prior to the use of large-caliber suture in patients requiring tenorrhaphy, however, in vivo studies are required to confirm the results obtained here.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To compare the biomechanical properties and gapping characteristics following loop modification of a 3-loop-pulley (3LP) pattern in an ex vivo canine common calcaneal tendon (CCT) avulsion repair model.
SAMPLE
56 skeletally mature hindlimbs from 28 canine cadavers.
PROCEDURES
The CCTs were randomized to 1 of 4 experimental groups (n = 14/group) then sharply transected at the teno-osseous junction. Groups consisted of a 3LP, 4-loop-pulley (4LP), 5-loop-pulley (5LP), or 6-loop-pulley (6LP) pattern with loops placed 60° apart using size-0 polypropylene. Yield, peak, and failure loads, construct stiffness, loads to produce a 3-mm teno-osseous gap, and failure mode were evaluated and compared between groups.
RESULTS
Yield (P = 0.001), peak (P < 0.001), and failure loads (P < 0.001), construct stiffness (P < 0.001), and loads to 3-mm gap formation (P = 0.005) were all significantly greater for 6LP compared to all other groups. Mode of failure did not differ among groups (P = 0.733) with 75% (42/56) of repairs failing by mechanism of core sutures pulling through the tendinous tissue. Pattern modification by increasing the number of loops increased the repair site strength by 1.4, 1.6, and 1.8 times for 4LP, 5LP, and 6LP compared to 3LP, respectively.
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Increasing the number of suture loops compared to a traditional 3LP repair is a relatively simple technique modification that significantly increases teno-osseous repair site strength and loads required to cause 3-mm gap formation. The results of this study justify further focused investigation of increasing the number of suture loops in vivo for teno-osseous CCT repair in dogs.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the effects of using an internal fixation plate to augment primary 3-loop pulley (3LP) repair of canine gastrocnemius tendons (GTs).
SAMPLE
48 cadaveric GTs from 24 adult dogs.
PROCEDURES
GTs were dissected free from other tissues, transected, and randomly assigned to 4 groups (n = 12/group). GTs were repaired with 2-0 polypropylene with a 3LP repair alone or a 3LP repair augmented with a 3-hole veterinary cuttable plate (3VCP), a 5-hole veterinary cuttable plate (5VCP), or a 7-hole veterinary cuttable plate (7VC P). Biomechanical loads, construct stiffness, gap formation, and failure modes were compared between groups.
RESULTS
Yield, peak, and failure loads were all significantly increased for the 5VCP and 7VCP groups, compared with the 3LP alone group. Increasing plate length from 3VCP to 5VCP and from 3VCP to 7VCP increased yield, peak, and failure loads. No differences were found between the 3LP and 3VCP groups with regard to yield and peak loads, but failure load was increased in the 3VCP group. Loads to create 1-mm and 3-mm gaps were significantly greater for the 5VCP and 7VCP groups, compared with the 3LP alone and 3VCP groups. Mode of plate attachment failure differed among groups.
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Tendon plate augmentation may be a viable surgical option to increase the strength of the tenorrhaphy in dogs. However, in vivo studies evaluating the effects of plate augmentation on the tendon blood supply and progression of healing are needed prior to clinical application.
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate the effect of a double Krackow suture pattern (DK), with and without epitendinous suture augmentation (ES), in a canine gastrocnemius tendon (GT) model.
SAMPLE
Paired GTs from 12 adult dog cadavers and 4 control GT.
PROCEDURES
GTs were assigned to 2 groups (n = 12/group). Transverse tenotomy was performed and repaired with a DK or DK + ES. Yield, peak, and failure force, stiffness, occurrence of 1-and 3-mm gapping, and failure mode were examined.
RESULTS
Yield, peak, and failure loads were greater for DK + ES. Yield force was 48% greater for DK + ES (mean ± SD, 149.56 ± 53.26 N) versus DK (101.27 ± 37.17 N; P = 0.017). Peak force was 45% greater for DK + ES P < 0.001). Failure force was 47% greater for DK + ES (193.752 ± 31.43 N) versus DK (131.54 ± 22.28 N; P < 0.001). Construct stiffness was 36% greater for DK + ES (P = 0.04). All 12 DK and 10 of 12 DK + ES repairs produced a 1-mm gap, with all DK and 4 DK + ES repairs producing a 3-mm gap (P < 0.001). Loads required to create a 3-mm gap were significantly greater for DK + ES (P < 0.013). Suture breakage occurred in all DK repairs, which differed from DK + ES, where suture breakage (7/12) and tissue failure (5/12; P = 0.037) predominated.
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Augmentation of a primary DK repair with an ES significantly improved construct strength in canine GT constructs while increasing loads required to cause 1- and 3-mm gap formation, respectively. ES augmentation is a simple technique modification that can be used to significantly increase construct strength, compared with DK alone.
