Search Results

Abstract

Objective—To determine messenger RNA expression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin- (IL)-1β from cultured equine smooth muscle cells (SMC).

Sample Population—Segments of palmar digital artery harvested from 6 clinically normal adult horses.

Procedure—Explants were collected from the tunica media of arteries for primary culture of SMC. Equine mononuclear cells were used as control cells. Subcultured vascular SMC and control cells were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (20 µg/ml and 100 ng/ml, respectively). Northern blot analysis with equine-specific probes for COX-2, TNF-α, and IL-1β was performed, using isolated total cellular RNA.

Results—Although no message was detected for IL-1β or TNF-α in control or endotoxin-exposed equine vascular SMC from all horses, COX-2 underwent a distinct substantial up-regulation after endotoxin exposure. Endotoxin-exposed equine mononuclear cells had up-regulation of IL-1β and TNF-α mRNA.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Increased expression of COX-2 mRNA by equine vascular SMC may be an important early pathophysiologic event in the onset of endotoxemia in horses. Potentiated local vascular production of various prostanoids after increased expression of mRNA for COX-2 may result in vasoactive events observed with laminitis. (Am J Vet Res 2001;62:1957–1963)

Abstract

Objective—To determine the effect of fetal bovine serum (FBS) and heat-inactivated FBS (HI-FBS) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and zymosan-induced procoagulant activity of equine and canine mononuclear cells.

Sample Population—Mononuclear cells from 18 horses and 3 dogs.

Procedures—Cells were incubated with various concentrations of FBS, HI-FBS, LPS, zymosan, polymyxin B, and anti–LPS-binding protein monoclonal antibody or combinations of these constituents. A 1stage recalcification assay was used to determine procoagulant activity.

Results—Addition of FBS to media significantly increased procoagulant activity; equine and canine cells were stimulated by 1% and 10% FBS, respectively. Coincubation of cells with FBS and polymyxin B did not reduce this effect, suggesting that the response was not attributable to LPS contamination. Addition of HI-FBS to media did not stimulate procoagulant activity of equine or canine cells, and the sensitivity of the equine cells to LPS was significantly increased by HI-FBS. This increased LPS sensitivity was reduced 40% with monoclonal antibody directed against human recombinant LPSbinding protein. Increasing concentrations of HIFBS significantly increased LPS- and zymosaninduced procoagulant activity of canine cells.

Conclusion and Clinical Relevance—Procoagulant activity production in equine and canine mononuclear cells was significantly increased by addition of FBS, whereas heat inactivation of FBS eliminated this effect. Heat inactivation did not eliminate the function of serum proteins involved in enhancement of LPSand zymosan-induced procoagulant activity. Results suggest that HI-FBS can be used as a source of serum proteins that increase the sensitivity of mononuclear cells to bacterial and yeast cell wall components.

Abstract

Objective—To determine the effects of induction of capacitative Ca²⁺ entry on tone in equine laminar arteries and veins.

Sample Population—Laminar arteries and veins from 6 adult mixed-breed horses.

Procedure—Arteries and veins were isolated and mounted on small vessel myographs for the measurement of isometric tension. Capacitative Ca²⁺ entry was induced by incubating the vessels with the specific Ca²⁺-ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin (100nM) in a Ca²⁺- free physiologic salt solution. Capacitative Ca²⁺ entry–associated contractile responses were determined by the subsequent addition of 2mM Ca²⁺ to the solution bathing the vessels; in some experiments, either the voltage-gated Ca²⁺ blocker diltiazem (10µM) or the putative capacitative Ca²⁺ entry inhibitor trifluoromethylphenylimidazole (300µM) was added to the bathing solution 15 minutes prior to a second 2mM Ca²⁺ exposure. The Sr²⁺ permeability of the capacitative Ca²⁺ entry pathway in laminar vessels was assessed by exposing the vessels to 4mM Sr²⁺ after induction of capacitative Ca²⁺ entry with thapsigargin.

Results—Induction of capacitative Ca²⁺ entry elicited robust contractile responses in laminar veins but did not increase tone in laminar arteries. In laminar veins, capacitative Ca²⁺ entry–induced contractile responses were unaffected by preincubation with diltiazem, attenuated by trifluoromethylphenylimidazole, and were impermeable to Sr²⁺.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results indicated that induction of capacitative Ca²⁺ entry elicits vasoconstriction in equine laminar veins but not in laminar arteries and should therefore be considered a potential mechanism by which selective venoconstriction occurs in horses during the development of acute laminitis. (Am J Vet Res 2005;66:1877–1880)

Abstract

Objective—To evaluate effects of black walnut extract (BWE) on equine mononuclear cells and determine whether BWE has direct proinflammatory effects.

Sample—Mononuclear cells separated from blood samples from 8 horses.

Procedures—Aqueous BWE was prepared and processed to eliminate contamination with particulates and microbes. A Limulus amoebocyte lysate assay was used to detect lipopolysaccharide (LPS) contamination in the BWE. Mononuclear cells were incubated in minimal essential medium with or without the addition of 0.6% to 10% (vol/vol) BWE. These mononuclear cells were assessed for viability, activities of caspases 3 and 7, nitric oxide production, procoagulant activity, and tumor necrosis factor-α production. The effect of LPS on cellular responses induced by BWE was assessed by coincubation with 13 U of polymyxin B/mL; mononuclear cells incubated with LPS were used as a reference.

Results—BWE did not cause loss of cell membrane integrity in mononuclear cells but did induce a dose-dependent increase in activities of caspases 3 and 7. Neither BWE nor LPS significantly induced production of nitric oxide. Both BWE and LPS induced comparable amounts of procoagulant activity and tumor necrosis factor-α production; coincubation with polymyxin B reduced the activity for BWE and LPS by 50% and approximately 100%, respectively.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Addition of BWE induced inflammatory activation of equine mononuclear cells, a portion of which was independent of the effects of LPS. Furthermore, BWE and LPS may work in concert to induce systemic inflammatory responses that contribute to the development of acute laminitis in horses.

Abstract

OBJECTIVE To identify courses in which first-year veterinary students struggled academically and to survey veterinarians as to their opinions on existing prerequisite courses and proposed alternatives.

DESIGN Electronic surveys.

SAMPLE Associate deans for academic affairs at colleges of veterinary medicine and practicing veterinarians in North America and the Caribbean.

PROCEDURES Surveys were sent to associate deans of academic affairs seeking information on courses in which first-year veterinary students most commonly struggled academically. The 6 courses most commonly listed as prerequisites for admission to veterinary college were identified, and practitioners were asked to rank the relative importance of those courses for preparing students for veterinary college and to rank the importance of 7 potential alternative courses.

RESULTS Data were obtained from 21 associate deans and 771 practicing veterinarians. First-year veterinary students most commonly struggled academically in anatomy, physiology, and histology courses, but these courses were rarely included as prerequisites for admission. Practicing veterinarians agreed that anatomy and physiology should be considered as possible alternatives to 1 or more current prerequisite courses, such as organic chemistry and physics.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE First-year veterinary students commonly encountered academic difficulties in anatomy, physiology, and histology. Because few surveyed veterinary colleges include these courses as prerequisites for admission, many students were exposed to this material for the first time as veterinary students, potentially adding to their academic difficulties and causing stress and anxiety. To help address this situation, veterinary colleges might consider replacing 1 or more current prerequisite courses (eg, organic chemistry and physics) with anatomy, physiology, and histology.

Abstract

Objective—To study expression of interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) in the digital laminae of horses in the prodromal stage of experimentally induced laminitis.

Animals—8 healthy adult horses with no signs of laminitis.

Procedure—Black walnut extract was administered via nasogastric tube to 4 horses, and water was administered to the remaining 4 (controls). Complete blood counts and physical examinations were performed every 30 minutes after administration of black walnut extract or water. General anesthesia was induced when total WBC count decreased by 30% in horses given the black walnut extract and 3 hours after water administration in control horses. The left forefoot was perfusion fixed with neutral-buffered 10% formalin, and paraffin-embedded sections of the digit were used for in situ hybridization with an equine-specific IL-1β probe.

Results—IL-1β mRNA expression was observed in perivascular cells of the small laminar venules and capillaries in all 4 horses given black walnut extract and in interstitial cells remote from the microvasculature in 1 of the 4. Other cellular components of the laminar tissue and cellular components of the digital arterioles and veins did not exhibit IL-1β mRNA expression. Expression of IL-1β mRNA was not detected in laminae from control horses.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results suggest that IL-1β mRNA is expressed by perivascular cells in the laminar tissues of horses in the prodromal stage of experimentally induced laminitis. This provides evidence of an inflammatory process during the prodromal stage of laminitis, indicating that local digital proinflammatory cytokine expression may be an initiating factor in laminitis.(Am J Vet Res 2001;62: 714–720)

Abstract

Objective—To evaluate the effects of a standardized exercise test to exhaustion in horses on leukocyte function ex vivo.

Animals—6 Thoroughbred geldings.

Procedures—Blood samples were obtained from each horse before exercise; at exhaustion (termed failure); and at 2, 6, 24, 48, and 72 hours after exercise to evaluate hematologic changes, rate of leukocyte apoptosis, and leukocyte production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) ex vivo. To assess leukocyte function, leukocyte ROS production in response to stimulation with lipopolysaccharide, peptidoglycan, zymosan, and phorbol myristate acetate was evaluated. Apoptosis was evaluated via assessment of caspase activity in leukocyte lysates.

Results—In response to lipopolysaccharide, production of ROS by leukocytes was significantly increased at 2 hours and remained increased (albeit not significantly) at 6 hours after exercise, compared with the preexercise value. In the absence of any stimulus, leukocyte ROS production was significantly increased at 6 and 24 hours after exercise. In contrast, ROS production in response to phorbol myristate acetate was significantly decreased at 6, 24, and 72 hours after exercise. Leukocyte ROS production induced by zymosan or peptidoglycan was not altered by exercise. Leukocytosis was evident for 24 hours after exercise, and neutrophilia was detected during the first 6 hours. A significant increase in the rate of leukocyte apoptosis was detected at failure and 72 hours after exercise.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results indicated that strenuous exercise undertaken by horses causes alterations in innate immune system functions, some of which persist for as long as 72 hours after exercise.

Abstract

Objective—To evaluate anti-inflammatory effects of several novel adenosine receptor agonists and to determine their specificity for various adenosine receptor subtypes on neutrophils, cells heterologously expressing equine adenosine receptors, or equine brain membranes.

Sample Population—Neutrophils isolated from 8 healthy horses.

Procedures—Radioligand binding experiments were performed to compare binding affinities of adenosine receptor agonists to equine adenosine A₁, A_2A, and A₃ receptor subtypes. Effects of these agonists on endotoxin-induced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by equine neutrophils and roles of specific adenosine receptor subtypes and cAMP production in mediating these effects were determined.

Results—Radioligand binding experiments yielded a ranked order of affinity for the brain equine A_2A receptor on the basis of 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀) of the agonists as follows: ATL307 (IC₅₀ = 1.9nM) and ATL313 > ATL309 and ATL310 > ATL202 > 2-([p-2- carboxyethyl] phenylethylamino)-5′-N-ethylcarboxyamidoadenosine > 5′-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine. Furthermore, ATL313 had approximately 100-fold greater selectivity for A_2A over A₁ and A₃ receptors. In functional assays with equine neutrophils, the compounds inhibited endotoxin-induced ROS production and stimulated production of cAMP with the same ranked order of potency. Results of experiments performed with selective adenosine receptor antagonists indicated that functional effects of ATL313 were via stimulation of A_2A receptors.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results indicated that activation of A_2A receptors exerted anti-inflammatory effects on equine neutrophils and that stable, highly selective adenosine A_2A receptor agonists may be developed for use in management of horses and other domestic animals with septic and nonseptic inflammatory diseases.

Abstract

Objective—To determine the effects of inhibition of Rho-kinase or Src-family protein tyrosine kinases (srcPTK) on agonist-induced contractile responses in equine laminar arteries and veins.

Sample Population—Laminar arteries and veins obtained from 13 adult mixed-breed horses.

Procedures—Laminar vessels were mounted on myographs and exposed to phenylephrine (PE), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), prostaglandin F_2α (PGF_2α), and endothelin-1 (ET-1) with or without the Rho-kinase inhibitor Y-27632 (10μM), srcPTK inhibitor PP2 (10μM), or a negative control analogue for PP2 (PP3; 10μM).

Results—Responses to PE were reduced by use of Y-27632 in laminar vessels (approx inhibition, 55%). However, Y-27632 reduced responses to 5-HT to a greater degree in veins than in arteries (approx inhibition of 55% and 35%, respectively). The Y-27632 also reduced responses of laminar veins to ET-1 by approximately 40% but had no effect on maximum responses of laminar arteries to ET-1, although a rightward shift in the concentration response curve was evident. Addition of PP2 reduced responses to PE, 5-HT, and PGF_2α in laminar veins by approximately 40%, 60%, and 65%, respectively, compared with responses after the addition of PP3; PP2 had no effect on responses to ET-1. In laminar arteries, PP2 reduced 5-HT–induced contractions by approximately 50% but did not affect responses to PE or ET-1.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results of the study were consistent with activation of Rho-kinase being important during agonist-induced constriction in laminar vessels, activation of srcPTK being an agonist-dependent event, and more prominent roles for Rhokinase and srcPTK in veins than in arteries.

Abstract

Objective—To evaluate proinflammatory effects of the second-generation synthetic lipid A analogue E5564 on equine whole blood and isolated monocytes and to determine the ability of E5564 to prevent LPS (lipopolysaccharide)-induced procoagulant activity (PCA); tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α production; and mRNA expression of TNF-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 by equine monocytes.

Sample Population—Venous blood samples obtained from 19 healthy horses.

Procedures—Whole blood and monocytes were incubated with Escherichia coli O111:B4 LPS, E5564, or E5564 plus E coli O111:B4 LPS. Whole blood and cell supernatants were assayed for TNF-α, and cell lysates were assayed to determine PCA. Expression of mRNA for TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 by monocytes was determined by use of real-time quantitative PCR assay.

Results—Minimal proinflammatory effects were detected in whole blood and monocytes. In addition, E5564 inhibited LPS-induced PCA and TNF-α production in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, E5564 significantly inhibited LPS-induced mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-10 and decreased LPS-induced expression of IL-6.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—The second-generation synthetic lipid A analogue E5564 lacked agonist activity in equine whole blood and monocytes and was a potent antagonist of enteric LPS. Therefore, E5564 appeared to be the first lipid A analogue that has potential as an effective therapeutic agent in horses with endotoxemia.