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- Author or Editor: Johannes van der Kolk x
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine effects of anesthesia on plasma concentrations and pulsatility of ACTH in samples obtained from the cavernous sinus and jugular vein of horses.
ANIMALS 6 clinically normal adult horses.
PROCEDURES Catheters were placed in a jugular vein and into the cavernous sinus via a superficial facial vein. The following morning (day 1), cavernous sinus blood samples were collected every 5 minutes for 1 hour (collection of first sample = time 0) and jugular venous blood samples were collected at 0, 30, and 60 minutes. On day 2, horses were sedated with xylazine hydrochloride and anesthesia was induced with propofol mixed with ketamine hydrochloride. Horses were positioned in dorsal recumbency. Anesthesia was maintained with isoflurane in oxygen and a continuous rate infusion of butorphanol tartrate. One hour after anesthesia was induced, the blood sample protocol was repeated. Plasma ACTH concentrations were quantified by use of a commercially available sandwich assay. Generalized estimating equations that controlled for horse and an expressly automated deconvolution algorithm were used to determine effects of anesthesia on plasma ACTH concentrations and pulsatility, respectively.
RESULTS Anesthesia significantly reduced the plasma ACTH concentration in blood samples collected from the cavernous sinus.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Mean plasma ACTH concentrations in samples collected from the cavernous sinus of anesthetized horses were reduced. Determining the success of partial ablation of the pituitary gland in situ for treatment of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction may require that effects of anesthesia be included in interpretation of plasma ACTH concentrations in cavernous sinus blood.
Abstract
Objective—To investigate the effects of exercise on activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling proteins in horses.
Animals—6 young trained Standardbred geldings.
Procedure—Horses performed a 20-minute bout of exercise on a treadmill at 80% of maximal heart rate. Muscle biopsy specimens were obtained from the vastus lateralis and pectoralis descendens muscles before and after exercise. Amount of expression and intracellular location of phosphospecific MAPK pathway intermediates were determined by use of western blotting and immunofluorescence staining.
Results—Exercise resulted in a significant increase in phosphorylation of p38 pathway intermediates, c-Jun NH2 terminal kinase (JNK), and heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) in the vastus lateralis muscle, whereas no significant changes were found in phosphorylation of extracellular regulated kinase. In the pectoralis descendens muscle, phosphorylation of p38 and HSP27 was significantly increased after exercise. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed fiber-type– specific locations of phosphorylated JNK in type 2a/b intermediate and 2b fibers and phosphorylated p38 in type 1 fibers. Phosphorylated HSP27 was strongly increased after exercise in type 1 and 2a fibers.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—The p38 pathway and JNK are activated in the vastus lateralis muscle after a single 20-minute bout of submaximal exercise in trained horses. Phosphorylation of HSP27 as detected in the study reported here is most likely induced through the p38 signaling pathway.
Abstract
Objective—To investigate the expression and localization of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) and fatty acid translocase (FAT/CD36) in equine skeletal muscle.
Sample Population—Muscle biopsy specimens obtained from 5 healthy Dutch Warmblood horses.
Procedures—Percutaneous biopsy specimens were obtained from the vastus lateralis, pectoralis descendens, and triceps brachii muscles. Cryosections were stained with combinations of GLUT4 and myosin heavy chain (MHC) specific antibodies or FAT/CD36 and MHC antibodies to assess the fiber specific expression of GLUT4 and FAT/CD36 in equine skeletal muscle via indirect immunofluorescent microscopy.
Results—Immunofluorescent staining revealed that GLUT4 was predominantly expressed in the cytosol of fast type 2B fibers of equine skeletal muscle, although several type 1 fibers in the vastus lateralis muscle were positive for GLUT4. In all muscle fibers examined microscopically, FAT/CD36 was strongly expressed in the sarcolemma and capillaries. Type 1 muscle fibers also expressed small intracellular amounts of FAT/CD36, but no intracellular FAT/CD36 expression was detected in type 2 fibers.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—In equine skeletal muscle, GLUT4 and FAT/CD36 are expressed in a fiber type selective manner. ( Am J Vet Res 2004;65:951–956)
Abstract
Objective—To investigate whether protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms are expressed in equine skeletal muscle and determine their distribution in various types of fibers by use of immunofluorescence microscopy.
Animals—5 healthy adult Dutch Warmblood horses.
Procedure—In each horse, 2 biopsy specimens were obtained from the vastus lateralis muscle. Cryosections of equine muscle were stained with PKC isoform (α, β1, β2, δ, ξ, or ζ)-specific polyclonal antibodies and examined by use of a fluorescence microscope. Homogenized muscle samples were evaluated via western blot analysis.
Results—The PKC α, β1, β2, δ, ξ, and ζ isoforms were localized within the fibers of equine skeletal muscle. In addition, PKC α and β2 were detected near or in the plasma membrane of muscle cells. For some PKC isoforms, distribution was specific for fiber type. Staining of cell membranes for PKC α was observed predominantly in fibers that reacted positively with myosin heavy chain (MHC)-IIa; PKC δ and ξ staining were more pronounced in MHC-I-positive fibers. In contrast, MHC-I negative fibers contained more PKC ζ than MHC-I-positive fibers. Distribution of PKC β1 was equal among the different fiber types.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Results indicated that PKC isoforms are expressed in equine skeletal muscle in a fiber type-specific manner. Therefore, the involvement of PKC isoforms in signal transduction in equine skeletal muscle might be dependent on fiber type. ( Am J Vet Res 2004; 65:69–73)
Abstract
Objective—To determine size and weight of the pituitary gland and associations between pituitary gland size and weight and sex and age in horses without clinical signs associated with pituitary pars intermedia adenoma (PPIA) and horses and ponies with PPIA.
Animals—Pituitary glands from 100 horses without clinical signs of PPIA and 19 horses and 17 ponies with PPIA.
Procedures—Pituitary glands were weighed, measured, and examined histologically by use of H&E stain. Masson trichrome and periodic acid-Schiff staining were used, when appropriate. Histologic lesions in the pars intermedia, pars distalis, or both were classified as no significant lesions, single or multiple cysts, focal or multifocal hyperplasia, single or multiple microadenomas, and adenoma. Relative pituitary weight (RPW) was calculated as pituitary weight (grams) divided by body weight (grams).
Results—There was an age-related increase in the presence of pituitary lesions in the pars distalis and pars intermedia in geldings, mares overall, and nonpregnant mares. Mean (± SD) RPW in horses with PPIA was not significantly different from ponies with PPIA (15 ± 5.9 X 10–6 and 16 ± 7.2 × 10–6, respectively). Maximum pituitary weight in a horse with PPIA was 13.9 g (RPW, 2.9 × 10–5). Plasma glucose concentration was positively correlated with RPW in ponies with PPIA.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Pituitary lesions may be a factor in horses with insulin resistance and laminitis before development of clinical signs of PPIA. Ovarian steroids may be involved in the pathogenesis of lesions in the pars intermedia. (Am J Vet Res 2004;65:1701–1707)
Abstract
Objective—To investigate the effects of acute exercise and long-term training on Na+,K+-ATPase content, mRNA isoforms, and protein concentration in equine muscle.
Animals—6 Standardbreds.
Procedures—Horses performed a bout of exercise on a treadmill before and after 18 weeks of combined interval and endurance training. Muscle biopsy specimens were obtained from vastus lateralis muscle (VLM) and pectoralis descendens muscle (PDM) before and after exercise. The Na+,K+-ATPase content, mRNA isoforms, and protein concentrations were determined by use of [3H]ouabain binding, real-time PCR assay, and western blotting, respectively.
Results—6 Na+,K+-ATPase mRNA isoforms were present in equine muscle, but only A2 and B1 proteins were detected. Exercise before training resulted in increases of mRNA isoforms A1, A2, A3, and B2 in VLM and A1 and B3 in PDM. Training increased resting values for mRNA isoforms A3 and B1 in VLM and B3 in PDM. The Na+,K+-ATPase, [3H]ouabain binding, and proteins of mRNA A2 and B1 increased in VLM, whereas in PDM, only A2 protein increased as a result of training. After training, effects of strenuous exercise on mRNA expression were no longer detectable.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Equine muscle contained all Na+,K+-ATPase mRNA isoforms, but only A2 and B1 proteins could be detected. Expression of these isoforms changed as a result of strenuous exercise and long-term training, representing an adaptive response. Determination of Na+,K+-ATPase gene expression may be relevant for understanding alterations in excitability during neuromuscular diseases.
Abstract
Objective—To determine the effects of short-term IV administration of hydrocortisone or equine growth hormone (eGH) or long-term IM administration of eGH to horses on tissue sensitivity to exogenous insulin.
Animals—5 Standardbreds and 4 Dutch Warmblood horses.
Procedure—The euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp technique was used to examine sensitivity of peripheral tissues to exogenous insulin 24 hours after administration of a single dose of hydrocortisone (0.06 mg/kg), eGH (20 µg/kg), or saline (0.9% NaCl) solution and after long-term administration (11 to 15 days) of eGH to horses. The amounts of metabolized glucose (M) and plasma insulin concentration (I) were determined.
Results—Values for M and the M-to-I ratio were significantly higher 24 hours after administration of a single dose of hydrocortisone than after single-dose administration of eGH or saline solution. After long-term administration of eGH, basal I concentration was increased and the mean M-to-I ratio was 22% lower, compared with values for horses treated with saline solution.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Increases in M and the M-to-I ratio after a single dose of hydrocortisone imply that short-term hydrocortisone treatment increases glucose use by, and insulin sensitivity of, peripheral tissues. Assuming a single dose of hydrocortisone improves sensitivity of peripheral tissues to insulin, it may be an interesting candidate for use in reducing insulin resistance in peripheral tissues of horses with several disease states. In contrast, long-term administration of eGH decreased tissue sensitivity to exogenous insulin associated with hyperinsulinemia. Therefore, increased concentrations of growth hormone may contribute to insulin resistance in horses with various disease states. (Am J Vet Res 2005;66:1907–1913)
Abstract
Objectives—To determine whether increased glucose metabolism is the potential cause of the decreased plasma glucose curve determined after oral glucose tolerance testing in horses with lower motor neuron degeneration.
Animals—3 horses with signs suggestive of lower motor neuron degeneration, 1 horse with malignant melanoma with multiple metastases, and an obese but otherwise healthy horse.
Procedures—Glucose metabolism was assessed by use of the hyperglycemic clamp and euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp techniques.
Results—Mean rate of glucose metabolism of horses with lower motor neuron degeneration was significantly greater (mean, 3.7 times greater than control horses; range, 2.1 to 4.8 times greater) than that reported in 5 healthy control horses (41 ± 13 µmol/kg/min vs 11 ± 4.5 µmol/kg/min, respectively). In addition, one of the affected horses, an 8-year-old warmblood gelding, had a 5.6- times increased sensitivity to exogenously administered insulin, compared with that reported in 5 healthy control horses. Pancreatic insulin secretion was not insufficient in horses with lower motor neuron degeneration. Findings in the 2 diseased control horses were unremarkable.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Increased glucose metabolism in horses with lower motor neuron degeneration may be the cause of the decreased plasma glucose curve detected after oral glucose tolerance testing. This finding could aid in developing supportive treatments with respect to adequate glucose and vitamin E supplementation. (Am J Vet Res 2005;66:271–276)
Abstract
Objective—To evaluate alterations in skeletal muscle carnitine metabolism during exercise and training by measuring changes in plasma acylcarnitine concentrations in Standardbreds.
Animals—10 Standardbred geldings with a mean ± SD age of 20 ± 2 months and weight of 384 ± 42 kg.
Procedures—In a 32-week longitudinal study, training on a treadmill was divided into 4 phases as follows: phase 1, acclimatization for 4 weeks; phase 2, 18 weeks with alternating endurance and high-intensity exercise training; phase 3, increased training volume and intensity for another 6 weeks; and phase 4, deconditioning for 4 weeks. In phase 3, horses were randomly assigned to 2 groups as follows: control horses (which continued training at the same level as in phase 2) and high-intensity exercise trained horses. At the end of each phase, a standardized exercise test (SET) was performed. Plasma acylcarnitine, fatty acids, and lactic acid and serum β-hydroxybutyric acid (BHBA) concentrations were assessed before and at different time points after each SET.
Results—Plasma lactic acid, total nonesterified fatty acids, 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid, and acetylcarnitine (C2-carnitine) concentrations significantly increased during SETs, whereas serum BHBA, plasma propionylcarnitine (C3-carnitine), and plasma butyryl- and isobutyrylcarnitine (C4-carnitine) concentrations decreased significantly, compared with those before SETs.
Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Our findings indicated that the plasma acylcarnitine profile in horses likely reflects skeletal muscle carnitine metabolism following exercise, thereby providing a possible practical method to investigate potential disorders in carnitine metabolism in horses with myopathy.
