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- Fatty Acid Nomenclature
- Essentiality of Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids
- Clinical Signs of Fatty Acid Deficiency
- Special Functions of Long-Chain PUFAs
- Sources of Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids
- Doses of Omega-3 Fatty Acids
- Assessment of Fatty Acid Status
- Safety and Regulatory Issues for Fatty Acid Products
- Clinical Summary
- ABBREVIATIONS
- References
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1. Boothe DM. Nutraceuticals in veterinary medicine. Part I. Definitions and regulations. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 1997; 19:1248–1255.
-
2. Bauer JE. Therapeutic use of fish oils in companion animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2011; 239:1441–1451.
-
3. National Research Council. Fat and fatty acids. In: Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2006;81–110.
-
4. Bach AC, Babayan VK. Medium-chain triglycerides: an update. Am J Clin Nutr 1982; 36:950–962.
-
5. Tymoczko J, Berg J, Stryer L. Lipids. In: Biochemistry: a short course. New York: WH Freeman and Co, 2010;142–153.
-
6. Tymoczko J, Berg J, Stryer L. Membrane structure and function. In: Biochemistry: a short course. New York: WH Freeman and Co, 2010;156–172.
-
7. Bauer JE. Metabolic basis for the essential nature of fatty acids and the unique dietary fatty acid requirements of cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006; 229:1729–1732.
-
8. Cook HW. Fatty acid desaturation and chain elongation in eukaryotes. In: Vance D, Vance J, eds. Biochemistry of lipids, lipoproteins and membranes. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1996;129–152.
-
9. Logas D, Beale KM, Bauer JE. Potential clinical benefits of dietary supplementation with marine-life oil. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1991; 199:1631–1636.
-
10. Dunbar BL, Bauer JE. Metabolism of dietary essential fatty acids and their conversion to long-chain polyunsaturated metabolites. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002; 220:1621–1626.
-
11. Rivers JP, Sinclair AJ, Crawford MA. Inability of the cat to desaturate essential fatty acids. Nature 1975; 258:171–173.
-
12. Filburn CR, Griffin D. Canine plasma and erythrocyte response to a docosahexaenoic acid-enriched supplement: characterization and potential benefits. Vet Ther 2005; 6:29–42.
-
13. Larsen J. Evidence-based benefits of omega-3 fatty acids for dogs and cats, in Proceedings. Am Coll Vet Intern Med Forum 2011;555–557.
-
14. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Lefevre M, et al. Towards establishing dietary reference intakes for eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. J Nutr 2009; 139:804S–819S.
-
15. Bauer JE, Dunbar BL, Bigley KE. Dietary flaxseed in dogs results in differential transport and metabolism of (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Nutr 1998; 128:2641S–2644S.
-
16. Pawlosky RJ, Denkins Y, Ward G, et al. Retinal and brain accretion of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in developing felines: the effects of corn oil-based maternal diets. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 65:465–472.
-
17. MacDonald ML, Rogers QR, Morris JG, et al. Effects of linoleate and arachidonate deficiencies on reproduction and spermatogenesis in the cat. J Nutr 1984; 114:719–726.
-
18. Waldron MK, Spencer AL, Bauer JE. Role of long-chain polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids in the development of the nervous system of dogs and cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1998; 213:619–622.
-
19. Holman RT, Johnson SB, Hatch TF. A case of human linolenic acid deficiency involving neurological abnormalities. Am J Clin Nutr 1982; 35:617–623.
-
20. Heinemann KM, Bauer JE. Docosahexaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006; 228:700–705.
-
21. Zheng X, Tocher DR, Dickson CA, et al. Highly unsaturated fatty acid synthesis in vertebrates: new insights with the cloning and characterization of a delta6 desaturase of Atlantic salmon. Lipids 2005; 40:13–24.
-
22. Fincham JR, Fontenot JP, Swecker WS, et al. Fatty acid metabolism and deposition in subcutaneous adipose tissue of pasture- and feedlot-finished cattle. J Anim Sci 2009; 87:3259–3277.
-
23. Hagi A, Nakayama M, Shinzaki W, et al. Effects of the omega-6:omega-3 fatty acid ratio of fat emulsions on the fatty acid composition in cell membranes and the anti-inflammatory action. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2010; 34:263–270.
-
24. Riediger ND, Othman RA, Suh M, et al. A systemic review of the roles of n-3 fatty acids in health and disease. J Am Diet Assoc 2009; 109:668–679.
-
25. Boudreau MD, Chanmugam PS, Hart SB, et al. Lack of dose response by dietary n-3 fatty acids at a constant ratio of n-3 to n-6 fatty acids in suppressing eicosanoid biosynthesis from arachidonic acid. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54:111–117.
-
26. Stoeckel K, Bachmann L, Dobeleit G, et al. Response of plasma fatty acid profiles to changes in dietary n-3 fatty acids and its correlation with erythrocyte fatty acid profiles in dogs. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2013; 97:1142–1151.
-
27. von Schacky C, Fischer S, Weber PC. Long-term effects of dietary marine omega-3 fatty acids upon plasma and cellular lipids, platelet function, and eicosanoid formation in humans. J Clin Invest 1985; 76:1626–1631.
-
28. Vognild E, Elvevoll EO, Brox J, et al. Effects of dietary marine oils and olive oil on fatty acid composition, platelet membrane fluidity, platelet responses, and serum lipids in healthy humans. Lipids 1998; 33:427–436.
-
29. Schneeman B. FDA's review of scientific evidence for health claims. J Nutr 2007; 137:493–494.
-
30. Lenox CE, Bauer JE. Potential adverse effects of omega-3 fatty acids in dogs and cats. J Vet Intern Med 2013; 27:217–226.
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Timely Topics in Nutrition: An overview of fatty acids in companion animal medicine
Catherine E. Lenox
 DVM
Catherine E. Lenox
From Royal Canin USA, 500 Fountain Lakes Blvd, Ste 100, St Charles, MO 63301.
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- Fatty Acid Nomenclature
- Essentiality of Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids
- Clinical Signs of Fatty Acid Deficiency
- Special Functions of Long-Chain PUFAs
- Sources of Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids
- Doses of Omega-3 Fatty Acids
- Assessment of Fatty Acid Status
- Safety and Regulatory Issues for Fatty Acid Products
- Clinical Summary
- ABBREVIATIONS
- References
ProCite
RefWorks
Reference Manager
BibTeX
Zotero
EndNote
-
1. Boothe DM. Nutraceuticals in veterinary medicine. Part I. Definitions and regulations. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 1997; 19:1248–1255.
-
2. Bauer JE. Therapeutic use of fish oils in companion animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2011; 239:1441–1451.
-
3. National Research Council. Fat and fatty acids. In: Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2006;81–110.
-
4. Bach AC, Babayan VK. Medium-chain triglycerides: an update. Am J Clin Nutr 1982; 36:950–962.
-
5. Tymoczko J, Berg J, Stryer L. Lipids. In: Biochemistry: a short course. New York: WH Freeman and Co, 2010;142–153.
-
6. Tymoczko J, Berg J, Stryer L. Membrane structure and function. In: Biochemistry: a short course. New York: WH Freeman and Co, 2010;156–172.
-
7. Bauer JE. Metabolic basis for the essential nature of fatty acids and the unique dietary fatty acid requirements of cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006; 229:1729–1732.
-
8. Cook HW. Fatty acid desaturation and chain elongation in eukaryotes. In: Vance D, Vance J, eds. Biochemistry of lipids, lipoproteins and membranes. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1996;129–152.
-
9. Logas D, Beale KM, Bauer JE. Potential clinical benefits of dietary supplementation with marine-life oil. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1991; 199:1631–1636.
-
10. Dunbar BL, Bauer JE. Metabolism of dietary essential fatty acids and their conversion to long-chain polyunsaturated metabolites. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002; 220:1621–1626.
-
11. Rivers JP, Sinclair AJ, Crawford MA. Inability of the cat to desaturate essential fatty acids. Nature 1975; 258:171–173.
-
12. Filburn CR, Griffin D. Canine plasma and erythrocyte response to a docosahexaenoic acid-enriched supplement: characterization and potential benefits. Vet Ther 2005; 6:29–42.
-
13. Larsen J. Evidence-based benefits of omega-3 fatty acids for dogs and cats, in Proceedings. Am Coll Vet Intern Med Forum 2011;555–557.
-
14. Harris WS, Mozaffarian D, Lefevre M, et al. Towards establishing dietary reference intakes for eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. J Nutr 2009; 139:804S–819S.
-
15. Bauer JE, Dunbar BL, Bigley KE. Dietary flaxseed in dogs results in differential transport and metabolism of (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Nutr 1998; 128:2641S–2644S.
-
16. Pawlosky RJ, Denkins Y, Ward G, et al. Retinal and brain accretion of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in developing felines: the effects of corn oil-based maternal diets. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 65:465–472.
-
17. MacDonald ML, Rogers QR, Morris JG, et al. Effects of linoleate and arachidonate deficiencies on reproduction and spermatogenesis in the cat. J Nutr 1984; 114:719–726.
-
18. Waldron MK, Spencer AL, Bauer JE. Role of long-chain polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids in the development of the nervous system of dogs and cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1998; 213:619–622.
-
19. Holman RT, Johnson SB, Hatch TF. A case of human linolenic acid deficiency involving neurological abnormalities. Am J Clin Nutr 1982; 35:617–623.
-
20. Heinemann KM, Bauer JE. Docosahexaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2006; 228:700–705.
-
21. Zheng X, Tocher DR, Dickson CA, et al. Highly unsaturated fatty acid synthesis in vertebrates: new insights with the cloning and characterization of a delta6 desaturase of Atlantic salmon. Lipids 2005; 40:13–24.
-
22. Fincham JR, Fontenot JP, Swecker WS, et al. Fatty acid metabolism and deposition in subcutaneous adipose tissue of pasture- and feedlot-finished cattle. J Anim Sci 2009; 87:3259–3277.
-
23. Hagi A, Nakayama M, Shinzaki W, et al. Effects of the omega-6:omega-3 fatty acid ratio of fat emulsions on the fatty acid composition in cell membranes and the anti-inflammatory action. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2010; 34:263–270.
-
24. Riediger ND, Othman RA, Suh M, et al. A systemic review of the roles of n-3 fatty acids in health and disease. J Am Diet Assoc 2009; 109:668–679.
-
25. Boudreau MD, Chanmugam PS, Hart SB, et al. Lack of dose response by dietary n-3 fatty acids at a constant ratio of n-3 to n-6 fatty acids in suppressing eicosanoid biosynthesis from arachidonic acid. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54:111–117.
-
26. Stoeckel K, Bachmann L, Dobeleit G, et al. Response of plasma fatty acid profiles to changes in dietary n-3 fatty acids and its correlation with erythrocyte fatty acid profiles in dogs. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2013; 97:1142–1151.
-
27. von Schacky C, Fischer S, Weber PC. Long-term effects of dietary marine omega-3 fatty acids upon plasma and cellular lipids, platelet function, and eicosanoid formation in humans. J Clin Invest 1985; 76:1626–1631.
-
28. Vognild E, Elvevoll EO, Brox J, et al. Effects of dietary marine oils and olive oil on fatty acid composition, platelet membrane fluidity, platelet responses, and serum lipids in healthy humans. Lipids 1998; 33:427–436.
-
29. Schneeman B. FDA's review of scientific evidence for health claims. J Nutr 2007; 137:493–494.
-
30. Lenox CE, Bauer JE. Potential adverse effects of omega-3 fatty acids in dogs and cats. J Vet Intern Med 2013; 27:217–226.
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