Kramer LD, Li J, Shi PY. West Nile virus. Lancet Neurol 2007;6:171–181.
Eidson M, Komar N, Sorhage F, et al. Crow deaths as a sentinel surveillance system for West Nile virus in the northeastern United States, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:615–620.
Trock SC, Meade BJ, Glaser AL, et al. West Nile virus outbreak among horses in New York State, 1999 and 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:745–747.
CDC. West Nile virus activity—United States, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007;56:556–559.
CDC. Virology: classification of West Nile Virus, 2003. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/virus.htm. Accessed Sep 25, 2007.
Calisher CH, Karabatsos N, Dalrymple JM, et al. Antigenic relationships between flaviviruses as determined by cross-neutralization tests with polyclonal antisera. J Gen Virol 1989;70: 37–43.
Komar N. West Nile virus: epidemiology and ecology in North America. Adv Virus Res 2003;61:185–234.
Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, et al. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2003;9:311–322.
Reisen WK, Barker CM, Carney R, et al. Role of corvids in epidemiology of West Nile virus in southern California. J Med Entomol 2006;43:356–367.
Reisen WK, Fang Y, Martinez VM. Avian host and mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) vector competence determine the efficiency of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis virus transmission. J Med Entomol 2005;42:367–375.
Kilpatrick AM, Daszak P, Jones MJ, et al. Host heterogeneity dominates West Nile virus transmission. Proc Biol Sci 2006;273:2327–2333.
Molaei G, Andreadis TG, Armstrong PM, et al. Host feeding patterns of Culex mosquitoes and West Nile virus transmission, northeastern United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2006;12:468–474.
Langevin SA, Bunning M, Davis B, et al. Experimental infection of chickens as candidate sentinels for West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:726–729.
Goddard LB, Roth AE, Reisen WK, et al. Vector competence of California mosquitoes for West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2002;8:1385–1391.
Turell MJ, Dohm DJ, Sardelis MR, et al. An update on the potential of North American mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) to transmit West Nile Virus. J Med Entomol 2005;42:57–62.
Hayes EB, Komar N, Nasci RS, et al. Epidemiology and transmission dynamics of West Nile virus disease. Emerg Infect Dis 2005;11:1167–1173.
CDC. Epidemic/epizootic West Nile virus in the United States: guidelines for surveillance, prevention, and control, 2003. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/resources/wnv-guidelines-aug-2003.pdf. Accessed Sep 25, 2007.
Bohart RM, Washino RK. Mosquitoes in California. Berkeley, Calif: Agricultural Sciences Publications, Division of Agricultural Sciences, University of California, 1978;42–135.
Reisen WK, Reeves WC. Bionomics and ecology of Culex tarsalis and other potential mosquito vector species. In: Reeves WC, ed. Epidemiology and control of mosquito-borne arboviruses in California, 1943–1987. Sacramento, Calif: California Mosquito and Vector Control Association, 1990;254–329.
Padgett KA, Reisen WK, Kahl-Purcell N, et al. West Nile virus infection in tree squirrels (Rodentia: Sciuridae) in California, 2004–2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007;76:810–813.
Platt KB, Tucker BJ, Halbur PG, et al. West Nile virus viremia in eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus) sufficient for infecting different mosquitoes. Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:831–837.
Tiawsirisup S, Platt KB, Tucker BJ, et al. Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) develop West Nile virus viremias sufficient for infecting select mosquito species. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2005;5:342–350.
Klenk K, Snow J, Morgan K, et al. Alligators as West Nile virus amplifiers. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:2150–2155.
Jacobson ER, Ginn PE, Troutman JM, et al. West Nile virus infection in farmed American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in Florida. J Wildl Dis 2005;41:96–106.
CDC. Intrauterine West Nile virus infection—New York, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51:1135–1136.
O'Leary DR, Kuhn S, Kniss KL, et al. Birth outcomes following West Nile virus infection of pregnant women in the United States: 2003–2004. Pediatrics 2006;117:e537–e545.
Julander JG, Winger QA, Rickords LF, et al. West Nile virus infection of the placenta. Virology 2006;347:175–182.
CDC. Possible West Nile virus transmission to an infant through breast-feeding—Michigan, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51:877–878.
Hinckley AF, O'Leary DR, Hayes EB. Transmission of West Nile virus through human breast milk seems to be rare. Pediatrics 2007;119:e666–e671.
CDC. Update: investigations of West Nile virus infections in recipients of organ transplantation and blood transfusion—Michigan, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51:879.
Kotton CN. Zoonoses in solid-organ and hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:857–866.
CDC. Possible dialysis-related West Nile virus transmission—Georgia, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53:738–739.
Kipp AM, Lehman JA, Bowen RA, et al. West Nile virus quantification in feces of experimentally infected American and fish crows. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006;75:688–690.
Sbrana E, Tonry JH, Xiao SY, et al. Oral transmission of West Nile virus in a hamster model. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005;72:325–329.
Austgen LE, Bowen RA, Bunning ML, et al. Experimental infection of cats and dogs with West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:82–86.
Nemeth N, Gould D, Bowen R, et al. Natural and experimental West Nile virus infection in five raptor species. J Wildl Dis 2006;42:1–13.
Dawson JR, Stone WB, Ebel GD, et al. Crow deaths caused by West Nile virus during winter. Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:1912–1914.
CDC. West Nile virus infection among turkey breeder farm workers—Wisconsin, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003;52:1017–1019.
CDC. Laboratory-acquired West Nile virus infections—United States, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51:1133–1135.
CDC. West Nile virus: statistics, surveillance, and control, US Maps. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/surv&control.htm. Accessed Sep 24, 2007.
CDC. Neuroinvasive and non-neuroinvasive domestic arboviral diseases, 2004 case definition. Available at: www.cdc.gov/epo/dphsi/casedef/arboviral_current.htm. Accessed Sep 21, 2007.
CDC. Final 2006 reports of nationally infectious diseases notifiable diseases. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007;56:853–863.
Sejvar JJ. The long-term outcomes of human West Nile virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:1617–1624.
CDC. West Nile virus: vertebrate ecology. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/birdspecies.htm. Accessed Oct 1, 2007.
Root JJ, Hall JS, McLean RG, et al. Serologic evidence of exposure of wild mammals to flaviviruses in the central and eastern United States. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005;72:622–630.
Komar N, Panella NA, Boyce E. Exposure of domestic mammals to West Nile virus during an outbreak of human encephalitis, New York City, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:736–738.
Pilipski JD, Pilipskl LM, Risley LS. West Nile virus antibodies in bats from New Jersey and New York. J Wildl Dis 2004;40:335–337.
Bentler KT, Hall JS, Root JJ, et al. Serologic evidence of West Nile virus exposure in North American mesopredators. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007;76:173–179.
Gibbs SE, Marlenee NL, Romines J, et al. Antibodies to West Nile virus in feral swine from Florida, Georgia, and Texas, USA. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2006;6:261–265.
Santaella J, McLean R, Hall JS, et al. West Nile virus serosurveillance in Iowa white-tailed deer (1999–2003). Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005;73:1038–1042.
Eidson M. “Neon needles” in a haystack: the advantages of passive surveillance for West Nile virus. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001; 951:38–53.
Eldridge BF, Reisen WK, Scott TW, et al. A model surveillance program for vector-borne diseases in California, 1998–99. Proc Mosq Vector Control Assoc Calif 1999;67:22–26.
Trevejo RT, Reeves WC. Antibody response to Culex tarsalis salivary gland antigens among sentinel chickens in California. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005;72:481–487.
D'Agostino JJ, Isaza R. Clinical signs and results of specific diagnostic testing among captive birds housed at zoological institutions and infected with West Nile virus. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004;224:1640–1643.
Ludwig GV, Calle PP, Mangiafico JA, et al. An outbreak of West Nile virus in a New York City captive wildlife population. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2002;67:67–75.
CDC. West Nile virus: entomology. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/mosquitoSpecies.htm. Accessed Oct 1, 2007.
O'Leary DR, Marfin AA, Montgomery SP, et al. The epidemic of West Nile virus in the United States, 2002. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2004;4:61–70.
Brownstein JS, Rosen H, Purdy D, et al. Spatial analysis of West Nile virus: rapid risk assessment of an introduced vector-borne zoonosis. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2002;2:157–164.
Ruiz MO, Tedesco C, McTighe TJ, et al. Environmental and social determinants of human risk during a West Nile virus outbreak in the greater Chicago area, 2002. Int J Health Geogr 2004;3:8.
Gahlinger PM, Reeves WC, Milby MM. Air conditioning and television as protective factors in arboviral encephalitis risk. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1986;35:601–610.
Eidson M, Schmit K, Hagiwara Y, et al. Dead crow density and West Nile virus monitoring, New York. Emerg Infect Dis 2005;11:1370–1375.
Julian KG, Eidson M, Kipp AM, et al. Early season crow mortality as a sentinel for West Nile virus disease in humans, northeastern United States. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2002;2:145–155.
Johnson GD, Eidson M, Schmit K, et al. Geographic prediction of human onset of West Nile virus using dead crow clusters: an evaluation of year 2002 data in New York State. Am J Epidemiol 2006;163:171–180.
Watson JT, Jones RC, Gibbs K, et al. Dead crow reports and location of human West Nile virus cases, Chicago, 2002. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:938–940.
Bernard KA, Maffei JG, Jones SA, et al. West Nile virus infection in birds and mosquitoes, New York State, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:679–685.
Corrigan RL, Waldner C, Epp T, et al. Prediction of human cases of West Nile virus by equine cases, Saskatchewan, Canada, 2003. Prev Vet Med 2006;76:263–272.
Bode AV, Sejvar JJ, Pape WJ, et al. West Nile virus disease: a descriptive study of 228 patients hospitalized in a 4-county region of Colorado in 2003. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42:1234–1240.
Berner YN, Lang R, Chowers MY. Outcome of West Nile fever in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002;50:1844–1846.
CDC. West Nile virus update—United States, January 1–August 14, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007;56:821–822.
Hayes EB, O'Leary DR. West Nile virus infection: a pediatric perspective. Pediatrics 2004;113:1375–1381.
Davis LE, DeBiasi R, Goade DE, et al. West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease. Ann Neurol 2006;60:286–300.
Glass WG, McDermott DH, Lim JK, et al. CCR5 deficiency increases risk of symptomatic West Nile virus infection. J Exp Med 2006;203:35–40.
Samuel MA, Diamond MS. Alpha/beta interferon protects against lethal West Nile virus infection by restricting cellular tropism and enhancing neuronal survival. J Virol 2005;79:13350–13361.
Ward MP, Schuermann JA, Highfield LD, et al. Characteristics of an outbreak of West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in a previously uninfected population of horses. Vet Microbiol 2006;118:255–259.
Kile JC, Panella NA, Komar N, et al. Serologic survey of cats and dogs during an epidemic of West Nile virus infection in humans. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005;226:1349–1353.
Lopes H, Redig P, Glaser A, et al. Clinical findings, lesions, and viral antigen distribution in great gray owls (Strix nebulosa) and barred owls (Strix varia) with spontaneous West Nile virus infection. Avian Dis 2007;51:140–145.
Steele KE, Linn MJ, Schoepp RJ, et al. Pathology of fatal West Nile virus infections in native and exotic birds during the 1999 outbreak in New York City, New York. Vet Pathol 2000;37:208–224.
Eidson M, Kramer L, Stone W, et al. Dead bird surveillance as an early warning system for West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:631–635.
CDC. West Nile virus activity—United States, January 1–December 1, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005;54:1253–1256.
Read RW, Rodriguez DB, Summers BA. West Nile virus encephalitis in a dog. Vet Pathol 2005;42:219–222.
Cannon AB, Luff JA, Brault AC, et al. Acute encephalitis, polyarthritis, and myocarditis associated with West Nile virus infection in a dog. J Vet Intern Med 2006;20:1219–1223.
Bowen RA, Rouge MM, Siger L, et al. Pathogenesis of West Nile virus infection in dogs treated with glucocorticoids. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006;74:670–673.
Hayes EB, Sejvar JJ, Zaki SR, et al. Virology, pathology, and clinical manifestations of West Nile virus disease. Emerg Infect Dis 2005;11:1174–1179.
Pergam SA, DeLong CE, Echevarria L, et al. Myocarditis in West Nile Virus infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006;75:1232–1233.
Mostashari F, Bunning ML, Kitsutani PT, et al. Epidemic West Nile encephalitis, New York, 1999: results of a household-based seroepidemiological survey. Lancet 2001;358:261–264.
Watson JT, Pertel PE, Jones RC, et al. Clinical characteristics and functional outcomes of West Nile Fever. Ann Intern Med 2004;141:360–365.
Ferguson DD, Gershman K, LeBailly A, et al. Characteristics of the rash associated with West Nile virus fever. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41:1204–1207.
Johnson AJ, Langevin S, Wolff KL, et al. Detection of anti-West Nile virus immunoglobulin M in chicken serum by an enzymelinked immunosorbent assay. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:2002–2007.
Calisher CH. Medically important arboviruses. Clin Microbiol Rev 1994;7:89–116.
AAEP. West Nile virus vaccination guidelines, 2005. Available at: www.aaep.org/pdfs/AAEP_WNV_Guidelines_2005.pdf. Accessed Sep 17, 2007.
Choi KS, Ko YJ, Nah JJ, et al. Monoclonal antibody-based competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detecting and quantifying West Nile virus-neutralizing antibodies in horse sera. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007;14:134–138.
Balasuriya UB, Shi PY, Wong SJ, et al. Detection of antibodies to West Nile virus in equine sera using microsphere immunoassay. J Vet Diagn Invest 2006;18:392–395.
Kauffman EB, Jones SA, Dupuis AP Jr, et al. Virus detection protocols for West Nile virus in vertebrate and mosquito specimens. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:3661–3667.
Kleiboeker SB, Loiacono CM, Rottinghaus A, et al. Diagnosis of West Nile virus infection in horses. J Vet Diagn Invest 2004;16: 2–10.
Weingartl HM, Neufeld JL, Copps J, et al. Experimental West Nile virus infection in blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata) and crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos). Vet Pathol 2004;41:362–370.
Godhardt JA, Beheler K, O'Connor MJ, et al. Evaluation of antigen-capture ELISA and immunohistochemical methods for avian surveillance of West Nile virus. J Vet Diagn Invest 2006;18:85–89.
Ryan J, Dave K, Emmerich E, et al. Wicking assays for the rapid detection of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viral antigens in mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 2003;40:95–99.
Stone WB, Okoniewski JC, Therrien JE, et al. VecTest as diagnostic and surveillance tool for West Nile virus in dead birds. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:2175–2181.
Stone WB, Therrien JE, Benson R, et al. Assays to detect West Nile virus in dead birds. Emerg Infect Dis 2005;11:1770–1773.
Merle C. FAQs on West Nile virus for small animal veterinarians. Available at: www.cvm.uiuc.edu/czr/wnvpetvets.html. Accessed Oct 9, 2007.
Meyer JA, Disch D, Cruthers LR, et al. Repellency and efficacy of a 65% permethrin spot-on formulation for dogs against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) mosquitoes. Vet Ther 2003;4:135–144.
Salazar P, Traub-Dargatz JL, Morley PS, et al. Outcome of equids with clinical signs of West Nile virus infection and factors associated with death. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004;225:267–274.
Vest DJ, Cohen ND, Berezowski CJ, et al. Evaluation of administration of West Nile virus vaccine to pregnant broodmares. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004;225:1894–1897.
Okeson DM, Llizo SY, Miller CL, et al. Antibody response of five bird species after vaccination with a killed West Nile virus vaccine. J Zoo Wildl Med 2007;38:240–244.
Carson PJ, Konewko P, Wold KS, et al. Long-term clinical and neuropsychological outcomes of West Nile virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2006;43:723–730.
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Supported in part by grants from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the University of Arizona.
The authors thank Drs. Laura Kramer and Susan Wong for laboratory support and Dr. Dennis White and Bryon Backenson for human and mosquito surveillance data.
Kramer LD, Li J, Shi PY. West Nile virus. Lancet Neurol 2007;6:171–181.
Eidson M, Komar N, Sorhage F, et al. Crow deaths as a sentinel surveillance system for West Nile virus in the northeastern United States, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:615–620.
Trock SC, Meade BJ, Glaser AL, et al. West Nile virus outbreak among horses in New York State, 1999 and 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:745–747.
CDC. West Nile virus activity—United States, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007;56:556–559.
CDC. Virology: classification of West Nile Virus, 2003. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/virus.htm. Accessed Sep 25, 2007.
Calisher CH, Karabatsos N, Dalrymple JM, et al. Antigenic relationships between flaviviruses as determined by cross-neutralization tests with polyclonal antisera. J Gen Virol 1989;70: 37–43.
Komar N. West Nile virus: epidemiology and ecology in North America. Adv Virus Res 2003;61:185–234.
Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, et al. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2003;9:311–322.
Reisen WK, Barker CM, Carney R, et al. Role of corvids in epidemiology of West Nile virus in southern California. J Med Entomol 2006;43:356–367.
Reisen WK, Fang Y, Martinez VM. Avian host and mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) vector competence determine the efficiency of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis virus transmission. J Med Entomol 2005;42:367–375.
Kilpatrick AM, Daszak P, Jones MJ, et al. Host heterogeneity dominates West Nile virus transmission. Proc Biol Sci 2006;273:2327–2333.
Molaei G, Andreadis TG, Armstrong PM, et al. Host feeding patterns of Culex mosquitoes and West Nile virus transmission, northeastern United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2006;12:468–474.
Langevin SA, Bunning M, Davis B, et al. Experimental infection of chickens as candidate sentinels for West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:726–729.
Goddard LB, Roth AE, Reisen WK, et al. Vector competence of California mosquitoes for West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2002;8:1385–1391.
Turell MJ, Dohm DJ, Sardelis MR, et al. An update on the potential of North American mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) to transmit West Nile Virus. J Med Entomol 2005;42:57–62.
Hayes EB, Komar N, Nasci RS, et al. Epidemiology and transmission dynamics of West Nile virus disease. Emerg Infect Dis 2005;11:1167–1173.
CDC. Epidemic/epizootic West Nile virus in the United States: guidelines for surveillance, prevention, and control, 2003. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/resources/wnv-guidelines-aug-2003.pdf. Accessed Sep 25, 2007.
Bohart RM, Washino RK. Mosquitoes in California. Berkeley, Calif: Agricultural Sciences Publications, Division of Agricultural Sciences, University of California, 1978;42–135.
Reisen WK, Reeves WC. Bionomics and ecology of Culex tarsalis and other potential mosquito vector species. In: Reeves WC, ed. Epidemiology and control of mosquito-borne arboviruses in California, 1943–1987. Sacramento, Calif: California Mosquito and Vector Control Association, 1990;254–329.
Padgett KA, Reisen WK, Kahl-Purcell N, et al. West Nile virus infection in tree squirrels (Rodentia: Sciuridae) in California, 2004–2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007;76:810–813.
Platt KB, Tucker BJ, Halbur PG, et al. West Nile virus viremia in eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus) sufficient for infecting different mosquitoes. Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:831–837.
Tiawsirisup S, Platt KB, Tucker BJ, et al. Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) develop West Nile virus viremias sufficient for infecting select mosquito species. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2005;5:342–350.
Klenk K, Snow J, Morgan K, et al. Alligators as West Nile virus amplifiers. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:2150–2155.
Jacobson ER, Ginn PE, Troutman JM, et al. West Nile virus infection in farmed American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in Florida. J Wildl Dis 2005;41:96–106.
CDC. Intrauterine West Nile virus infection—New York, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51:1135–1136.
O'Leary DR, Kuhn S, Kniss KL, et al. Birth outcomes following West Nile virus infection of pregnant women in the United States: 2003–2004. Pediatrics 2006;117:e537–e545.
Julander JG, Winger QA, Rickords LF, et al. West Nile virus infection of the placenta. Virology 2006;347:175–182.
CDC. Possible West Nile virus transmission to an infant through breast-feeding—Michigan, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51:877–878.
Hinckley AF, O'Leary DR, Hayes EB. Transmission of West Nile virus through human breast milk seems to be rare. Pediatrics 2007;119:e666–e671.
CDC. Update: investigations of West Nile virus infections in recipients of organ transplantation and blood transfusion—Michigan, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51:879.
Kotton CN. Zoonoses in solid-organ and hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:857–866.
CDC. Possible dialysis-related West Nile virus transmission—Georgia, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53:738–739.
Kipp AM, Lehman JA, Bowen RA, et al. West Nile virus quantification in feces of experimentally infected American and fish crows. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006;75:688–690.
Sbrana E, Tonry JH, Xiao SY, et al. Oral transmission of West Nile virus in a hamster model. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005;72:325–329.
Austgen LE, Bowen RA, Bunning ML, et al. Experimental infection of cats and dogs with West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:82–86.
Nemeth N, Gould D, Bowen R, et al. Natural and experimental West Nile virus infection in five raptor species. J Wildl Dis 2006;42:1–13.
Dawson JR, Stone WB, Ebel GD, et al. Crow deaths caused by West Nile virus during winter. Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:1912–1914.
CDC. West Nile virus infection among turkey breeder farm workers—Wisconsin, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003;52:1017–1019.
CDC. Laboratory-acquired West Nile virus infections—United States, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51:1133–1135.
CDC. West Nile virus: statistics, surveillance, and control, US Maps. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/surv&control.htm. Accessed Sep 24, 2007.
CDC. Neuroinvasive and non-neuroinvasive domestic arboviral diseases, 2004 case definition. Available at: www.cdc.gov/epo/dphsi/casedef/arboviral_current.htm. Accessed Sep 21, 2007.
CDC. Final 2006 reports of nationally infectious diseases notifiable diseases. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007;56:853–863.
Sejvar JJ. The long-term outcomes of human West Nile virus infection. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:1617–1624.
CDC. West Nile virus: vertebrate ecology. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/birdspecies.htm. Accessed Oct 1, 2007.
Root JJ, Hall JS, McLean RG, et al. Serologic evidence of exposure of wild mammals to flaviviruses in the central and eastern United States. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005;72:622–630.
Komar N, Panella NA, Boyce E. Exposure of domestic mammals to West Nile virus during an outbreak of human encephalitis, New York City, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:736–738.
Pilipski JD, Pilipskl LM, Risley LS. West Nile virus antibodies in bats from New Jersey and New York. J Wildl Dis 2004;40:335–337.
Bentler KT, Hall JS, Root JJ, et al. Serologic evidence of West Nile virus exposure in North American mesopredators. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007;76:173–179.
Gibbs SE, Marlenee NL, Romines J, et al. Antibodies to West Nile virus in feral swine from Florida, Georgia, and Texas, USA. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2006;6:261–265.
Santaella J, McLean R, Hall JS, et al. West Nile virus serosurveillance in Iowa white-tailed deer (1999–2003). Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005;73:1038–1042.
Eidson M. “Neon needles” in a haystack: the advantages of passive surveillance for West Nile virus. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001; 951:38–53.
Eldridge BF, Reisen WK, Scott TW, et al. A model surveillance program for vector-borne diseases in California, 1998–99. Proc Mosq Vector Control Assoc Calif 1999;67:22–26.
Trevejo RT, Reeves WC. Antibody response to Culex tarsalis salivary gland antigens among sentinel chickens in California. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005;72:481–487.
D'Agostino JJ, Isaza R. Clinical signs and results of specific diagnostic testing among captive birds housed at zoological institutions and infected with West Nile virus. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004;224:1640–1643.
Ludwig GV, Calle PP, Mangiafico JA, et al. An outbreak of West Nile virus in a New York City captive wildlife population. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2002;67:67–75.
CDC. West Nile virus: entomology. Available at: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/westnile/mosquitoSpecies.htm. Accessed Oct 1, 2007.
O'Leary DR, Marfin AA, Montgomery SP, et al. The epidemic of West Nile virus in the United States, 2002. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2004;4:61–70.
Brownstein JS, Rosen H, Purdy D, et al. Spatial analysis of West Nile virus: rapid risk assessment of an introduced vector-borne zoonosis. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2002;2:157–164.
Ruiz MO, Tedesco C, McTighe TJ, et al. Environmental and social determinants of human risk during a West Nile virus outbreak in the greater Chicago area, 2002. Int J Health Geogr 2004;3:8.
Gahlinger PM, Reeves WC, Milby MM. Air conditioning and television as protective factors in arboviral encephalitis risk. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1986;35:601–610.
Eidson M, Schmit K, Hagiwara Y, et al. Dead crow density and West Nile virus monitoring, New York. Emerg Infect Dis 2005;11:1370–1375.
Julian KG, Eidson M, Kipp AM, et al. Early season crow mortality as a sentinel for West Nile virus disease in humans, northeastern United States. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2002;2:145–155.
Johnson GD, Eidson M, Schmit K, et al. Geographic prediction of human onset of West Nile virus using dead crow clusters: an evaluation of year 2002 data in New York State. Am J Epidemiol 2006;163:171–180.
Watson JT, Jones RC, Gibbs K, et al. Dead crow reports and location of human West Nile virus cases, Chicago, 2002. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10:938–940.
Bernard KA, Maffei JG, Jones SA, et al. West Nile virus infection in birds and mosquitoes, New York State, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:679–685.
Corrigan RL, Waldner C, Epp T, et al. Prediction of human cases of West Nile virus by equine cases, Saskatchewan, Canada, 2003. Prev Vet Med 2006;76:263–272.
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