Editorial Type:
Ophthalmology

Refractive states of eyes and associations between ametropia and age, breed, and axial globe length in domestic cats

Kricket A. Konrade Comparative Veterinary Ophthalmology, Eye Care For Animals, 150 N San Gabriel Blvd, Pasadena, CA 91106.

Search for other papers by Kricket A. Konrade in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
 DVM, MS
,
Allison R. Hoffman Comparative Veterinary Ophthalmology, Eye Care For Animals, 150 N San Gabriel Blvd, Pasadena, CA 91106.

Search for other papers by Allison R. Hoffman in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
 DVM
,
Kelli L. Ramey Comparative Veterinary Ophthalmology, Eye Care For Animals, 150 N San Gabriel Blvd, Pasadena, CA 91106.
Western Veterinary Specialist and Emergency Centre, 1802 10th Ave SW, Calgary, AB T3C OJ8, Canada.

Search for other papers by Kelli L. Ramey in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
 DVM
,
Ruby B. Goldenberg Comparative Veterinary Ophthalmology, Eye Care For Animals, 150 N San Gabriel Blvd, Pasadena, CA 91106.
Animal Surgical and Emergency Center, 1535 Sepulveda Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90025.

Search for other papers by Ruby B. Goldenberg in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
 DVM
, and
Terry W. Lehenbauer Veterinary Medicine Teaching and Research Center, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616.

Search for other papers by Terry W. Lehenbauer in
Current site
Google Scholar
PubMed Close
 DVM, MPVM, PhD
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.73.2.279
Volume/Issue:
Volume 73: Issue 2
Online Publication Date:
01 Feb 2012
Restricted access
Sign In Reprints and Permissions Purchase Article

Abstract

Objective—To determine the refractive states of eyes in domestic cats and to evaluate correlations between refractive error and age, breed, and axial globe measurements.

Animals—98 healthy ophthalmologically normal domestic cats.

Procedures—The refractive state of 196 eyes (2 eyes/cat) was determined by use of streak retinoscopy. Cats were considered ametropic when the mean refractive state was ≥ ± 0.5 diopter (D). Amplitude-mode ultrasonography was used to determine axial globe length, anterior chamber length, and vitreous chamber depth.

Results—Mean ± SD refractive state of all eyes was −0.78 ± 1.37 D. Mean refractive error of cats changed significantly as a function of age. Mean refractive state of kittens (≤ 4 months old) was −2.45 ± 1.57 D, and mean refractive state of adult cats (> 1 year old) was −0.39 ± 0.85 D. Mean axial globe length, anterior chamber length, and vitreous chamber depth were 19.75 ± 1.59 mm, 4.66 ± 0.86 mm, and 7.92 ± 0.86 mm, respectively.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Correlations were detected between age and breed and between age and refractive states of feline eyes. Mean refractive error changed significantly as a function of age, and kittens had greater negative refractive error than did adult cats. Domestic shorthair cats were significantly more likely to be myopic than were domestic mediumhair or domestic longhair cats. Domestic cats should be included in the animals in which myopia can be detected at a young age, with a likelihood of progression to emmetropia as cats mature.

Abstract

Objective—To determine the refractive states of eyes in domestic cats and to evaluate correlations between refractive error and age, breed, and axial globe measurements.

Animals—98 healthy ophthalmologically normal domestic cats.

Procedures—The refractive state of 196 eyes (2 eyes/cat) was determined by use of streak retinoscopy. Cats were considered ametropic when the mean refractive state was ≥ ± 0.5 diopter (D). Amplitude-mode ultrasonography was used to determine axial globe length, anterior chamber length, and vitreous chamber depth.

Results—Mean ± SD refractive state of all eyes was −0.78 ± 1.37 D. Mean refractive error of cats changed significantly as a function of age. Mean refractive state of kittens (≤ 4 months old) was −2.45 ± 1.57 D, and mean refractive state of adult cats (> 1 year old) was −0.39 ± 0.85 D. Mean axial globe length, anterior chamber length, and vitreous chamber depth were 19.75 ± 1.59 mm, 4.66 ± 0.86 mm, and 7.92 ± 0.86 mm, respectively.

Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Correlations were detected between age and breed and between age and refractive states of feline eyes. Mean refractive error changed significantly as a function of age, and kittens had greater negative refractive error than did adult cats. Domestic shorthair cats were significantly more likely to be myopic than were domestic mediumhair or domestic longhair cats. Domestic cats should be included in the animals in which myopia can be detected at a young age, with a likelihood of progression to emmetropia as cats mature.

Contributor Notes

Presented in abstract form at the American College of Veterinary Ophthalmologists Annual Conference, San Diego, October 2010.

Address correspondence to Dr. Konrade (kkonrade@eyecareforanimals.com).
Cover American Journal of Veterinary Research
American Journal of Veterinary Research
Publication Date:
01 Feb 2012
  • 1.

    Kubai MA, Bently E, Miller PE, et al. Refractive states of eyes and association between ametropia and breed in dogs. Am J Vet Res 2008; 69:946–951.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 2.

    Hung LF, Ramamirtham R, Huang J, et al. Peripheral refraction in normal infant rhesus monkeys. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49:3747–3757.

  • 3.

    Gilger BC, Davidson MG, Colitz CM. Experimental implantation of posterior chamber prototype intraocular lenses for the feline eye. Am J Vet Res 1998; 59:1339–1343.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 4.

    Marsh-Tootle WL, Norton TT. Refractive and structural measures of lid-suture myopia in tree shrew. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1989; 30:2245–2257.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 5.

    Hughes A. The refractive state of the rat eye. Vision Res 1977; 17:927–939.

  • 6.

    Mutti DO, Zadnik K, Johnson CA, et al. Retinoscopic measurement of the refractive state of the rat. Vision Res 1992; 32:583–586.

  • 7.

    Wiesenfeld Z, Branchek T. Refractive state and visual acuity in the hooded rat. Vision Res 1976; 16:823–827.

  • 8.

    Frederiksen R, Warrant EJ. Visual sensitivity in the crepuscular owl butterfly Caligo memnon and the diurnal blue morpho Morpho peleides: a clue to explain the evolution of nocturnal apposition eyes? J Exp Biol 2008; 211:844–851.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 9.

    Murphy CJ, Kern TJ, Howland HC. Refractive state, corneal curvature, accommodative range and ocular anatomy of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Vision Res 1992; 32:2013–2021.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 10.

    Murphy CJ, Bellhorn RW, Williams T, et al. Refractive state, ocular anatomy, and accommodative range of the sea otter (Enhydra lutris). Vision Res 1990; 30:23–32.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 11.

    Ofri R, Millodot S, Shimoni R, et al. Development of the refractive state in eyes of ostrich chicks (Struthio camelus). Am J Vet Res 2001; 62:812–815.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 12.

    Gur M, Sivak JG. Refractive state of the eye of a small diurnal mammal: the ground squirrel. Am J Optom Physiol Opt 1979; 56:689–695.

  • 13.

    Howland HC, Howland M, Giunta A, et al. Corneal curvatures and refractions of central American frogs. Vision Res 1997; 37:169–174.

  • 14.

    Howland HC, Howland M, Murphy CJ. Refractive state of the rhinoceros. Vision Res 1993; 33:2649–2651.

  • 15.

    Hueter RE, Murphy CJ, Howland M, et al. Refractive state and accommodation in the eyes of free-swimming versus restrained juvenile lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris). Vision Res 2001; 41:1885–1889.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 16.

    Hughes A, Vaney DI. The refractive state of the rabbit eye: variation with eccentricity and correction for oblique astigmatism. Vision Res 1978; 18:1351–1355.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 17.

    Millodot M, Blough P. The refractive state of the pigeon eye. Vision Res 1971; 11:1019–1022.

  • 18.

    Murphy CJ, Howland HC, Kwiecinski GG, et al. Visual accommodation in the flying fox (Pteropus giganteus). Vision Res 1983; 23:617–620.

  • 19.

    Sivak JG. The refractive error of the fish eye. Vision Res 1974; 14:209–213.

  • 20.

    Yinon U, Koslowe KC, Rassin MI. The optical effects of eyelid closure on the eyes of kittens reared in light and dark. Curr Eye Res 1984; 3:431–439.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 21.

    Murphy CJ, Howland HC. Owl eyes: accommodation, corneal curvature and refractive state. J Comp Physiol 1983; 151:277–284.

  • 22.

    Murphy CJ, Zadnik K, Mannis MJ. Myopia and refractive error in dogs. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1992; 33:2459–2463.

  • 23.

    Black J, Browning SR, Collins AV, et al. A canine model of inherited myopia: familial aggregation of refractive error in Labrador Retrievers. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49:4784–4789.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 24.

    Davidson MG, Murphy CJ, Nasisse MP, et al. Refractive state of aphakic and pseudophakic eyes of dogs. Am J Vet Res 1993; 54:174–177.

  • 25.

    Pollet L. Refraction of normal and aphakic canine eyes. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1982; 18:323–326.

  • 26.

    Gaiddon J, Bouhana N, Lallement P. Refraction by retinoscopy of normal, aphakic, and pseudophakic canine eyes: advantage of a 41-diopter intraocular lens? Vet Comp Ophthalmol 1996; 6:121–124.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 27.

    Smith EL III, Maguire GW, Watson JT. Axial lengths and refractive errors in kittens reared with an optically induced anisometropia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1980; 19:1250–1255.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 28.

    Cremieux J, Orban GA, Duysens J, et al. Experimental myopia in cats reared in stroboscopic illumination. Vision Res 1989; 29:1033–1036.

  • 29.

    Miller PE, Murphy CJ. Vision in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1995; 207:1623–1634.

  • 30.

    Mutti DO, Zadnik K, Fusaro RE, et al. Optical and structural development of the crystalline lens in childhood. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1998; 39:120–133.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 31.

    Mutti DO, Zadnik K, Murphy CJ. Naturally occurring vitreous chamber-based myopia in the Labrador Retriever. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999; 40:1577–1584.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 32.

    Grinninger P, Skalicky M, Nell B. Evaluation of healthy equine eyes by use of retinoscopy, keratometry, and ultrasonographic biometry. Am J Vet Res 2010; 71:677–681.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 33.

    McMullen RJ, Davidson MG, Campbell NB, et al. Evaluation of 30- and 25-diopter intraocular lens implants in equine eyes after surgical extraction of the lens. Am J Vet Res 2010; 71:809–816.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 34.

    Andison ME, Sivak JG, Bird DM. The refractive development of the eye of the American kestrel (Falco sparverius): a new avian model. J Comp Physiol A 1992; 170:565–574.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 35.

    Graham B, Judge SJ. Normal development of refractive state and ocular component dimensions in the marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Vision Res 1999; 39:177–187.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 36.

    Norton TT, McBrien NA. Normal development of refractive state and ocular component dimensions in the tree shrew (Tupaiabelangeri). Vision Res 1992; 32:833–842.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 37.

    Zhou X, Qu J, Xie R, et al. Normal development of refractive state and ocular dimensions in guinea pigs. Vision Res 2006; 46:2815–2823.

  • 38.

    Zhou X, Shen M, Xie J, et al. The development of the refractive status and ocular growth in C57BL/6 mice. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49:5208–5214.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 39.

    Ofri R, Millodot S, Tadmor Y, et al. The development of the refractive state in the newborn Thomson gazelle. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2004; 190:831–835.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 40.

    Irving EL, Sivak JG, Curry TA, et al. Chick eye optics: zero to fourteen days. J Comp Physiol A 1996; 179:185–194.

  • 41.

    Ribeiro AP, Silva ML, Rosa JP, et al. Ultrasonographic and echobiometric findings in the eyes of Saanen goats of different ages. Vet Ophthalmol 2009; 12:313–317.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 42.

    Cottrill NB, Banks WJ, Pechman RD. Ultrasonographic and biometric evaluation of the eye and orbit of dogs. Am J Vet Res 1989; 50:898–903.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 43.

    Gilger BC, Davidson MG, Howard PB. Keratometry, ultrasonic biometry, and prediction of intraocular lens power in the feline eye. Am J Vet Res 1998; 59:131–134.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 44.

    Belkin M, Yinon U, Rose L, et al. Effect of visual environment on refractive error of cats. Doc Ophthalmol 1977; 42:433–437.

  • 45.

    Coile DC, O'Keefe LP. Schematic eyes for domestic animals. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 1988; 8:215–220.

  • 46.

    Wiesel TN, Raviola E. Myopia and eye enlargement after neonatal lid fusion in monkeys. Nature 1977; 266:66–68.

  • 47.

    Yinon U, Rose L, Shapiro A. Myopia in the eye of developing chicks following monocular and binocular lid closure. Vision Res 1980; 20:137–141.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 48.

    Carroll JP. Component and correlation ametropia. Am J Optom Physiol Opt 1982; 59:28–33.

  • 49.

    Bradley DV, Fernandes A, Lynn M, et al. Emmetropization in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta): birth to young adulthood. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1999; 40:214–229.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 50.

    Saunders H. Age-dependence of human refractive errors. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 1981; 1:159–174.

  • 51.

    Moodie KL, Hashizume N, Houston DL, et al. Postnatal development of corneal curvature and thickness in the cat. Vet Ophthalmol 2001; 4:267–272.

    • Crossref
    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation
  • 52.

    Corboy J. Spherical errors. In: Corboy J, ed. The retinoscopy book: an introductory manual for eye care professionals. 5th ed. Thorofare, NJ: SLACK Inc, 2003;49–59.

    • Search Google Scholar
    • Export Citation

Advertisement